
Gass Q 3/O^S 

Book O a/^ 






DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 



Water-supply Paper 259 



THE UNDERGROUND WATERS OF 
SOUTHWESTERN OHIO 



BY 



M. L. FULLER and F. G. CLAPP 



WITH A DISCUSSION OP 



THE CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF THE WATERS 



R. B. DOLE 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1912 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Dibectob 



Water. SuppiiT Paper 259 



THE UNDEEGROUND WATERS OF 
SOUTHWESTERN OHIO 



BY 



M. L. FULLER and F. G. CLAPP 



WITH A DISCUSSION OF 



THE CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF THE WATERS 



BY 



R. B. DOLE 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1912 



^ 



Z^ 



^^ 






D. OF D. 
MAR 13 1913 



V 

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CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Introduction 13 

Location and area 13 

Object of investigation 14 

Sources of information 15 

Early studies 15 

Bibliography 16 

Field and office work 18 

Topography 18 

Relief 19 

Uplands _, 19 

Valleys 19 

i\[oraines 20 

Drainage 20 

Climate 21 

Geology 21 

Stratigraphy 21 

General succession of strata *l 21 

Unconsolidated deposits 23 

Alluvium and glacial valley filling 23 

Terrace gravels 24 

Loess ^ 25 

Morainal drift 26 

Till 26 

Old gravels 27 

Rock formations 28 

" Niagara " limestone 28 

"Clinton" limestone 28 

Richmond and Maysville formations 29 

Eden and Utica shales 29 

Point Pleasant formation 30 

" Bird's-eye " limestone 30 

St. Peter sandstone 31 

Cambrian and Ordovician dolomite 31 

Structure 31 

Underground waters 32 

Relation to surface features 32 

Source 33 

Popular conceptions 33 

Local sources 33 

General sources 34 

3 



4: CONTENTS. 

Underground waters — Continued. Page. 

Occurrence 36 

In rock 36 

In drift 37 

In alluvium, etc 1 37 

Head 37 

In rock 37 

In drift 38 

In alluvium, etc 39 

Supply 39 

Water-bearing formations i 40 

Unconsolidated deposits 40 

Alluvium and glacial valley filling 40 

Terrace gravels 41 

Loess - 42 

Morainal drift 42 

Till 43 

Old gravels 43 

Rock formations 44 

"Niagara" limestone 44 

" Clinton " limestone " 45 

Richmond and Maysville formations 45 

Eden and Utica shales . 46 

Point Pleasant formation 47 

"Bird's-eye" limestone 48 

St. Peter sandstone 48 

Cambrian and Ordovician dolomite 49 

Summary of available water 49 

Public water supplies 49 

Use of reports and maps 55 

Determination of surface deposits 55 

Determination of country rock 55 

Best source of supply 55 

Thickness of surface deposits 55 

Depth to water in St. Peter sandstone 56 

Flowing wells 56 

Water-bearing capacity of formations 56 

Distribution of surface deposits and rock formations 57 

Quality of water in particular deposits and formations 57 

Underground waters by counties 57 

Adams County (western half) 57 

Surface features 57 

Water-bearing formations 57 

Surface deposits 57 

Alluvium 57 

Loess 58 

Till 58 

Rock formations 58 

"Niagara" lihiestone 58 

"Clinton" limestone 59 

Richmond and Maysville formations 59 

Eden shale 60 

Springs _,,,^„_, „,. _ _ 60 



CONTENTS. 5 

Underground waters by counties — Continued. 

Adams County (western lialf) — Continued. Page. 

Notes by towns 60 

West Union 60 

Water prospects 61 

Brown County 61 

Surface features 61 

Water-bearing formations 62 

Surface deposits 62 

Alluvium 62 

Terrace gravels 62 

Loess 62 

Till . 63 

Rock formations 63 

"Niagara" limestone 63 

" Clinton " limestone 63 

Richmond and Maysville formations 63 

Eden shale 64 

Notes by towns 64 

Georgetown 64 

Ripley ^ 64 

Sardinia 64 

Water prospects 64 

Butler County 66 

Surface features i 66 

Water-bearing formations 67 

Surface deposits 67 

Alluvium 67 

Terrace gravels 67 

Till____ 68 

Morainal deposits 68 

Rock formations 69 

" Niagara " and " Clinton " limestones 69 

Richmond and Maysville formations 69 

Eden shale 70 

Notes by towns 70 

Coke Otto 70 

Darrtown 71 

Hamilton 71 

Oxford 73 

Sevenmile 73 

Tallawanda Springs 74 

Water prospects 74 

Clark County 75 

Surface features 75 

Water-bearing formations 75 

Surface deposits : 

Alluvium 75 

Till 76 

Morainal deposits 77 

Rock formations 77 

"Niagara" limestone 77 

"Clinton" limestone . 78 

Richmond formation 78 



6 CONTENTS. 

Undergi'oiuicl waters by counties — Continued. 

Clark County— Continued. Page. 

Notes by towns 79 

New Carlisle 79 

Northampton 79 

Springfield 79 

Water prospects 82 

Clermont County 82 

Surface features 82 

Water-bearing formations 83 

Surface deposits 83 

Alluvium 83 

Terrace gravels 83 

"^ Loess 83 

Till 84 

Rock formations 84 

Richmond and Maysville formations 84 

Eden shale 84 

Utica shale 85 

Point Pleasant formation 85 

Lower formations 85 

Notes by towns 85 

Batavia 85 

Felicity 85 

Loveland '. 86 

Marathon 86 

Milford — ; 86 

New Richmond 86 

Water prospects ^ 87 

Clinton County 88 

Surface features 1 88 

Water-bearing formations 89 

Surface deposits 89 

Alluvium 89 

Loess 90 

Till — — 90 

Moraiual deposits 90 

Rock formations 91 

"Niagara" limestone , 91 

" Clinton " limestone 91 

Richmond formation 92 

Deeper rocks 92 

Summary and recommendations 92 

Notes by towns 92 

Blanchester 92 

Clarksville 93 

Cuba 93 

McKay 94 

Martinsville. 94 

New Burlington 94 

Wilmington 95 

Water prospects 96 

Darke County (southern) 96 

Surface features 96 



CONTENTS. 7 

Underground waters by counties — Continued. 

Parke County (southern) — Continued. Paige. 

Water-bearing formations 97 

Surface deposits 97 

Alluvium 97 

Till 97 

Morainal deposits 98 

Rock formations 98 

Notes by towns 99 

Arcanum 99 

Gordon 99 

Water prospects 99 

Greene County ■. 100 

Surface features 100 

Water-bearing formations 100 

Surface deposits 100 

Alluvium 100 

Till ,___ 101 

Morainal and other gravels 101 

Rock formations 102 

"Niagara" limestone 102 

"Clinton" limestone 103 

Richmond formation 103 

Notes by towns 104 

Cedarville 104 

Clifton 105 

Goes 105 

Jamestown 105 

Osborn 105 

Paintersville 106 

Spring Valley 106 

Wilberforce 106 

Xenia „_ 106 

Yellow Springs 107 

Water prospects 108 

Hamilton County 109 

Surface features 109 

Water-bearing formations 109 

Surface deposits 111 

Alluvium 111 

Terrace gravels 112 

Loess 113 

Till 113 

Morainal deposits 113 

Rock formations 114 

Richmond and Maysville formations 114 

Eden shale 114 

Utica shale 114 

Point Pleasant formation 115 

"Birdseye" limestone 115 

St. Peter sandstone 115 

Cambrian and Ordovician dolomite 115 

Cambrian sandstone 115 



8 COlSTTENTS. 

Underground waters by counties — Continued. 

Hamilton County — Continued. Page. 

Notes by towns 115 

Arlington Heights 115 

California 116 

Carthage 117 

Cincinnati 117 

General conditions . 117 

Well records 118 

Rock floor 120 

Deep wells 121 

Public supplies 124 

College Hill 125 

Elmwood 126 

Harrison 126 

Ivorydale 126 

Madisonville 127 

Norwood 127 

St. Bernard 128 

Symmes Township 129 

Wyoming 129 

Water prospects ^ i 129 

Highland County 131 

Surface features 131 

Water-bearing formations 132 

Surface deposits 132 

Alluvium 1 132 

Till 132 

Morainal deposits and stratified drift 133 

Rock formations 133 

Carboniferous sandstone, Ohio shale, and " Helderberg " 

limestone 133 

" Niagara " limestone 133 

"Clinton" limestone 134 

Richmond formation 134 

Notes by towns 135 

Hillsboro 135 

Leesburg 135 

Lynchburg 135 

Water prospects 137 

Miami County (southern) 138 

Surface features 138 

Water-bearing formations 138 

Surface deposits 138 

Alluvium 138 

Till 139 

Morainal deposits 139 

Rock formations 140 

"Niagara" limestone 140 

"Clinton" limestone 140 

Richmond formation 141 

Notes by towns 141 

Tadmor 141 

Tippecanoe 142 



CONTENTS. 9 

Underground waters by counties — Continued. 
Miami County (southern) — Continued. 

Notes by towns — Continued. Page. 

West Milton 142 

Water prospects 143 

Montgomery County. 143 

Surface features 143 

-Water-bearing formations 144 

Surface deposits 144 

Alluvium 144 

Terrace gravels 145 

Till - 145 

Morainal deposits 146 

Rock formations 146 

" Niagara " limestone 146 

"Clinton" limestone 147 

Richmond and Maysville formations 148 

Notes by towns 148 

Brookville 148 

Chautauqua Grove 148 

Dayton 148 

Farmersville 150 

Germantown 150 

Miamisburg 151 

Oakwood 151 

Trotwood 152 

Union 152 

West Carrollton 152 

Water prospects 153 

Preble County 154 

Surface features 154 

Water-bearing formations 155 

Surface deposits 155 

Alluvium 155 

Terrace gravels 155 

Till 115 

Morainal deposits and outwash plains 156 

Rock formations 156 

" Niagara " limestone 156 

"Clinton" limestone 157 

Richmond and Maysville formations 157 

Notes by towns 158 

Camden 158 

Cedar Springs , 158 

Eaton 159 

Public supply 159 

Plowing wells 160 

Drilled wells 160 

Springs 160 

I Lewisburg 161 

New Paris 161 

West Alexandria 162 

West Elkton 163 

West Manchester 163 

Water prospects 164 



10 CONTENTS. 

Underground waters by counties — Continued. Page. 

Warren County 164 

Surface features 164 

Water-bearing formations 165 

Surface deposits 165 

Alluvium 165 

Loess 166 

Till 166 

Morainal deposits 166 

Rock formations 167 

''Niagara" limestone 167 

"Clinton" limestone 167 

Richmond and Maysville formations 167 

Notes by towns 168 

Franklin 168 

Kings Mills 169 

Lebanon 168 

Mason 169 

Morrow 170 

Murdock 170 

Springboro 170 

Waynesville 170 

Water prospects 171 

Chemical character of the waters, by R. B. Dole 172 

Introduction 172 

Analytical results 172 

Waters in general 173 

Mineral constituents 173 

For domestic use 175 

Physical qualities 175 

Bacteriological qualities 176 

Chemical qualities 176 

For boiler use 178 

Formation of scale 178 

Corrosion ^ 179 

Foaming 179 

Remedies for boiler troubles 180 

Boiler compounds 180 

Classification of boiler waters 181 

For miscellaneous industrial uses 184 

General requisites 184 

Free acids 185 

Suspended matter 185 

Color 185 

Iron 186 

Calcium and magnesium 186 

Carbonates 187 

Sulphates 187 

Chlorides 188 

Organic matter 188 

Hydrogen sulphide - — 188 

Miscellaneous substances 188 

For medicinal use 189 



CONTENTS. 11 

Chemical character of the waters, by R. B. Dole — Continued. 

Waters in general — Continued. Page. 

Purification of water 190 

General requirements and methods of purification 190 

Slow sand filtration— 192 

Mechanical filtration 194 

Cold-water softening 195 

Feed-water heating 196 

UndergTOund waters 197 

Chemical analyses 197 

Relation of quality to water-bearing stratum 208 

Waters of low mineral content 209 

Waters of high mineral content 211 

Relation to other underground waters ^^ 212 

Surface waters 212 

Relation between underground and surface waters 215 

Economic value of the waters 216 

Index 219 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 

Plate I. Geologic map of southwestern Ohio 22 

II. Map of southwestern Ohio, showing Quaternary deposits 24 

III. Map of southwestern Ohio, showing thicknesses of water-bear- 

ing surface deposits 26 

IV. Map of southwestern Ohio, showing artesian conditions 30 

V. A, Large solution channels due to enlargement of vertical joints 

in "Niagara" limestone; B, Ramifying solution channels 

along bedding plane in Maysville formation 36 

VI. A, Large solution opening due to enlargement of bedding plane 
in "Niagara" limestone; B, "Cement-rock" layer in terrace 

gravel 44 

VII. A, " Niagara " limestone, showing development of partings due 
to weathering ; B, " Clinton " limestone, showing cliff char- 
acter of outcrop and spring formed by waters collected on an 

upper impervious layer _- 45 

VIII. A, Well protected by cement curb and platform; B, Richmond 
and Maysville formations, showing alternations of shale and 

limestone 46 

IX. Springs, Neff Grounds, Yellow Springs, Greene County: A, 
Falling over tufa deposit; B, Chalybeate Spring emerging 

from the " Niagara " limestone above a shale parting 108 

FiGUEE 1. Index map showing location and extent of area discussed in 

report 13 

2. Cross section showing ground-water conditions in valleys 34 

3. Geologic cross section of southwestern Ohio 34 

4. Section illustrating the feeding of water beds through joint s__ 35 

5. Section showing valley alluvium fed from bedding planes and 

solution passages 37 

6. Section showing conditions of flow in inclined porous bed, be- 

coming thinner 38 

7. Section showing conditions of flow in inclined porous bed, be- 

coming impervious 38 

8. Diagram showing occurrence of water in terrace sands and 

gravels 41 

9. Rock water-bearing beds in Clark County 77 

10. Plan of infiltration galleries, public waterworks, Springfield. _ 80 

11. Section of deposits at infiltration galleries, Springfield 81 

12 



THE UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN 

OHIO. 



By Myron L. Fuller and FKEa)ERiCK G. Clapp. 



INTRODUCTION. 

LOCATION AND AREA. 



The district covered by this report is an area in southwestern Ohio 
extending from Ohio Eiver on the south to the southern portions of 




PiGDRH 1. — Index map showing location and extent of area discussed in report. 

Darke and Miami counties on the north, and from the Indiana State 
line on the west to central Adams and Highland counties on the east 

13 



14 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

(fig. 1). The area averages approximately 80 miles from north to 
south and 70 miles from east to west and contains about 5,600 square 
miles, or about one-seventh of the total area of the State. 

The district includes the following counties: Adams (western half), 
Brown, Butler, Clark, Clermont, Clinton, Darke (southern part), 
Greene, Hamilton, Highland (western half), Miami (southern part), 
Montgomery, Preble, Warren. The principal cities are Cincinnati, 
Dayton, Hamilton, and Springfield. 

OBJECT OF INVESTIGATION. 

The region under discussion receives abundant rainfall, the precip- 
itation averaging over 40 inches a year. The streams, however, are 
rather far apart and springs are few and of small volume. More- 
over, as the region is densely populated, the inhabitants averaging 
about 150 to the square mile in the area as a whole and 50 in the 
rural districts, and as it contains many paper mills, distilleries, 
powder mills, and other manufacturing establishments, the surface 
waters are in many localities badly polluted by sewage and industrial 
wastes and are entirely unfit for drinking. For these reasons care- 
fully protected ground-water supplies are highly desirable for do- 
mestic uses, especially in cities and crowded villages, where the 
nearness of the houses and the proximity of barns, privies, and cess- 
pools may make wells unsafe sources of supply. 

The value of pure water for public supplies can not be overesti- 
mated, the industrial loss resulting from a serious typhoid or other 
epidemic due to impure water often being of such magnitude as to 
seriously interfere with the prosperity of a town. People who a few^ 
years ago regarded any clear and cool water as satisfactory are now 
demanding that its absolute safety be established by proper exam- 
ination and inspection, and although in some localities a doubtful 
water may occasionally be accepted, condemnation of the supply and 
of those responsible for its installation is certain to follow its con- 
tinued use. 

Not only is the problem of procuring pure water for drinking and 
for other domestic uses recognized as urgent in the cities and villages, 
where it is not unusual to find practically every well more or less 
polluted, but it is of great importance in the country. Many farm 
wells are located in or near barnyards or hogpens and are contami- 
nated by refuse blown into them by the winds, as well as by the 
bodies of snakes, mice, rabbits, and other animals that may fall 
into them in their search for water in dry seasons. Many wells that 
furnish drinking water are situated on low ground and receive the 
drainage from houses and yards, being thus sources of grave danger. 
To the farmer, therefore, information both as to the proper construc- 
tion of wells and as to the best sources of water will be of great value. 



INTKODUCTION. 15 

One of the most important uses of water in many regions is for 
locomotive boilers. For the economical running of trains, especially- 
freight trains, water must be provided every few miles. Where per- 
manent streams are available and are not too muddy they generally 
furnish satisfactory supplies; but over many areas the streams are 
few, are far apart, and many of them go dry in times of drought. 
In such places wells must be the sources of supply. 

In southwestern Ohio immense quantities of water are required in 
industrial processes. In the manufacture of paper, especially, a 
single mill may use several hundred thousand gallons of water daily, 
and as the water of the streams is generally too muddy and the quan- 
tity too uncertain for this purpose, wells are largely used. Many 
other industries, especially those located in cities where the rates 
charged for the public service practically prohibit its use, have urgent 
need of ground-water supplies. 

The people of the vicinity generally know when a well has succeeded 
in obtaining a satisfactory supply, but laiowledge of the conditions 
that determine the success of the well or of the limits to which the 
favorable conditions extend is as a rule scanty, and many thousands 
of dollars have been wasted in southwestern Ohio and elsewhere in 
well drilling in places where a geologist would have pronounced the 
attempt hopeless. Information regarding the proper construction of 
wells is also urgently needed in order that the largest possible sup- 
plies and the best and purest water which a well is capable of affording 
may be obtained.^ 

SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
EARLY STUDIES. 

Previous to the investigations for the present report no specific 
study of underground w^aters had been conducted in the region, 
although some attention had been paid to the water resources by the 
parties investigating the geology of a number of counties for the 
State Survey, under Edward Orton, and by Frank Leverett in his 
studies of the drift of the region. The results of the former have 
appeared in the county reports of the State Survey and in a paper 
on the rock waters published by the United States Geological Survey.^ 
The results of Leverett's work have appeared in several reports of 
the National Survey.^ 

iSee Bowman, Isaiah, Well-drilling methods: Water-Supply Paper TJ. S. Geol. Survey 
No. 257, 1911. 

2 Orton, Edward, The rock waters of Ohio: Nineteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, 
pt. 4, 1898, pp. 633-717. 

3 Leverett, Frank, The water resources of Indiana and Ohio : Eighteenth Ann. Rept. 
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 4, 1897, pp. 419-559. Also, Underground waters of eastern United 
states : Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 114, 1905, pp. 265-270. 



16 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The more important publications which relate in part to the under- 
ground waters of Ohio are listed in the following bibliography. 
Many of these reports are, however, out of print and inaccessible. 

FuLLEK, Myron L., Lines, E. F., and Veatch, A. C, Record of deep-well drilling 
for 1904 : Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 264, 1905, 106 pp. 

Lists a number of n^w wells in Montgomery County. 

Fuller, Myron L., and Sanford, Samuel, Record of deep-well drilling for 1905 : 
Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 298, 1906, 299 pp. 

Lists new wells in Brown, Darke, and Greene Counties. 

Flynn, Benjamin H., and Flynn, Margaret S., The natural features and 
economic development of the Sandusky, Maumee, Muskingum, and Miami 
drainage areas in Ohio ; Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 91, 
1904, 130 pp. 

Includes a discussion of many of the public water supplies of southwestern 
Ohio, including those from springs, wells, and collecting galleries. 

HussEY, John, Report of the geology of Miami County: Rept. Geol. Survey 
Ohio, vol. 3, pt. 1, 1878, pp. 468-481. 

Notes the abundance of springs at the horizon of the " Clinton " limestone, 
some of which are large enough for power development. Describes the large 
spring at West Milton and discusses the conditions of the underground collection 
of water. The wells of the drift and the evidence which they afford of buried 
channels are also considered (pp. 469-470). 

Leverett, Frank, The water resources of Indiana and Ohio: Eighteenth Ann. 
Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 4, 1897, pp. 419-559. 

After considering the physical features, drainage, lakes, etc., of the region 
(pp. 426-474), discusses underground waters, including wells of the drift, shal- 
low and deep rock wells, subterranean drainage lines, springs, analyses of the 
waters, etc. (pp. 474-501), and gives extended descriptions of the water sup- 
plies of cities and villages (pp. 502-559). 

■ Glacial formations and drainage features of the Erie and Ohio basins: 

Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 41, 1902, 802 pp. 

No special discussion of the waters of the drift, but refers incidentally to 
wells and records, especially to the flowing wells of OJiio (see index of mono- 
graph). 

LiNDENMUTH, A. C, Rcport of the geology of Darke County : Rept. Geol. Survey 
Ohio, vol. 3, pt. 1, 1878, pp. 496-518. 

Describes the lime, magnesia, and sulphur springs of various beds (pp. 496, 
509, 517), and notes the abundance of good water in both drift and rocks (p. 
517). 

Orton, Edward, Report on geology of Montgomery County : Geol. Survey Ohio, 
Rept. of Progress in 1869, pt. 3, pp. 143-171. 

Describes the association of springs with the " Clinton " limestone (pp. 162- 
163). 

The geology of Highland County: Geol. Survey Ohio, Rept. of Progress 

in 1870, pp. 255-294. 

Notes prevalence of springs at shale layers in "Niagara" limestone (p. 275), 



SOUKCES OF INFOEMATIOX. 17 

Orton, Edward, The cliff limestone of Highland and Adams counties : Geol. 
Survey Ohio, Kept, of Progress in 1870, pp. 295-308. 

Describes springs at top of the shale layers in the " Niagara " limestone (pp. 
302,304). 

Geology of Hamilton County : Rept. Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 1, pt. 1, 1873, 

pp. 419-434. 

Gives sections and notes on wells near Cincinnati. 

Geology of Clermont County : Rept. Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 1, pt. 1, 1873, 

pp. 435-^49. 

Notes scarcity of springs and considers use of cisterns and wells in both rock 
and drift deposits (pp. 439-440, 446). 

Geology of Clark County: Rept. Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 1, pt. 1, 1873, 

pp. 450-480. 

Describes springs of the "Niagara" limestone (pp. 465-466, 469). 

Report on the geology of Greene County : Rept. Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 

2, pt. 1, 1874, pp. 659-696. 

Discusses in detail the water-supply conditions of the county (pp. 690-696), 
including the " Clinton " and " Niagara " spring horizons, and horizons afford- 
ing water to wells, the conditions leading to the contamination of ground 
waters, etc., and gives a full description of Yellow Springs and their sur- 
roundings. 

Report on the geology of Warren County: Rept. Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 

3, pt. 1, 1878, pp. 381-391. 

Discusses the wells and springs of the drift and the " Clinton " and " Niagara " 
limestones, and points out the need of cisterns in the blue limestone (Richmond 
and Maysville) districts. A large spring used for power development near 
Springboro is mentioned (pp. 388-389). 

Report on the geology of Butler County: Rept. Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 3 

pt. 1, 1878, pp. 392-403. 

Notes deficiency of ground water in the blue limestone (Richmond and Mays 
ville) and in regions of thin drift. Cisterns are recommended (p. 403). 

Report on the geology of Preble County: Rept. Geol. Survey Ohio, vol 

3, pt. 1, 1878, pp. 404-419. 

Notes prevalence of springs, sometimes marked by petroleum shows, at hori 
zon of "Clinton" limestone (pp. 406-408). 

The Trenton limestone as a source of oil and gas in Ohio: Rept. Geol 

Survey Ohio, vol. 6, 1888, pp. 101-310. 



Contains notes on wells drilled for oil and gas in the several counties of 
southwestern Ohio, numerous detailed records, and notes on waters encountered 
or on casing used. 

The rock waters of Ohio : Nineteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, 

pt. 4, 1898, pp. 633-717. 

Discusses the geology (pp. 638-650) and considers the waters of various for- 
mations from Carboniferous to Ordovician, inclusive (pp. 651-696). Flowing 
rock wells and artesian wells of buried glacial channels are described (pp. 
697-717). 

Peale, a. C, Lists and analyses of the mineral springs of the United States : 
Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 32, 1886, 235 pp. 

Gives list of mineral springs of Ohio, including those of the southwestern 
counties ; contains analyses of artesian well water from Cincinnati ; of salt well 
at Ludlow Grove, Hamilton County, Yellow and Bellbrook Magnetic Springs in 
Greene County, and Cedar Spring, Preble County. 

49130°— wsr 259—12 2 



18 UNDERGEOUND WATEES OF SOUTHWESTEEN OHIO. 

FIELD AND OFFICE WORK. 

The field work on which tliis report is based was begun August 1, 
1906, by M. L. Fuller, assisted by S. R. Capps, with J. R. Evans 
serving as chemist until about September 1, from which date to the 
close of the work late in September the chemical work was performed 
by H. N. Parker. From September 1 to 20 F. G. Clapp, acting 
under M. L. Fuller, had charge of the party. The complete analyses 
in connection with the work were made by R. B. Dole, assisted by 
M. G. Roberts, and the discussion of the chemical character of the 
waters has also been prepared by R. B. Dole. 

The work included the geologic tracing and correlation of the rock 
formations, a study of the water-bearing capacity of each formation 
outcropping at the surface or encountered by wells, the determination 
of the depth and yield of the waters, the study of the mineral springs, 
and the investigation of the public water supplies. Records of deep 
wells were procured, drillers were interviewed as to methods employed 
and general water conditions, and statistics were gathered in regard 
to the shallow wells in rock or unconsolidated material. The chemi- 
cal work included field examinations of waters from each of the 
several classes of drift and rock formations and determinations of 
the carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and iron. Complete analyses of 
samples of about 35 waters were made at the Washington labora- 
tory, and analyses were obtained from oAvners of many wells. In 
the study of public supplies special attention was given to the sani- 
tary quality of the water, with a view to determining sources of 
pollution and to making recommendations as to their removal. 

The text relating to Preble, Butler, and Hamilton counties was 
prepared by F. G. Clapp, and the general discussion and the text 
relating to the other 10 counties was prepared by M. L. Fuller. 
Frank Leverett supplied the details of the distribution of the drift 
for Plate II, and M. L. Fuller and E. O. Ulrich most of the geology 
for Plate I. E. O. Ulrich and J. M. Nickles also assisted very mate- 
rially in the preparation of the geologic discussions. Many drillers 
and well owners have also heartily cooperated in the work, arid to 
them grateful acknowledgment is hereby made. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

BELIEF. 

Southwestern Ohio is in the main a plateau that stands between 
800 and 1,100 feet above sea level; but the continuity of its surface 
is broken (1) by the deep valleys of the Ohio, Miami, Little Miami, 
and minor rivers and their tributaries, with bottoms extending from 
100 feet or more below the crests of the adjoining uplands in the 



TOPOGRAPHY. 19 

northern part of the area to over 400 feet below it in the vicinity 
of the Ohio; and (2) by the irregular morainal and less numerous 
rock hills rising above it. Of the subordinate features of the valleys 
the bluffs, terraces, and alluvial plains are the most interesting. 

UPLANDS. 

Nearly the entire surface area of the district under discussion 
belongs to the broad plateau that extends throughout Ohio and covers 
the greater portions of most of the adjoining States. Although 
marked by numerous deep valleys, some of them so close to one 
another that they are separated only by narrow ridges, the interven- 
ing crests generally stand very near the level of the plateau of which 
they are the remnants. The plateau, however, is not absolutely flat, 
but rises gradually from a general level of about 900 feet near the 
Ohio to about 1,100 feet in the northeastern and eastern portions of 
the area. 

Near the Ohio, and for 10 or in some place 15 miles or more north 
of its valley, the plateau is broken by numerous deep valleys and 
ravines, the more important of which are those of Miami and Little 
Miami rivers and Mill and Whiteoak creeks. Farther back the crests 
begin to widen and the flat remnants of the general surface are easily 
recognized. These gradually become broader to the north until flat 
surfaces many miles in extent are found. 

VALLEYS. 

Under the head of valleys are included all the depressions below 
the plateau except a few sags, so shallow as to be hardly noticeable, 
which here and there indent the surface. All of the valleys have been 
cut by streams that flow across the plateau, although several, such as 
that along the western border of Hamilton County, that leading from 
Hamilton to St. Bernard and thence to the Little Miami near Madi- 
sonville, that extending from near Middletown to South Lebanon, 
that cutting across a bend of the Little Miami near Lebanon, that 
connecting Mad River with the Little Miami Valley south of Osborn, 
and that extending from the Miami near Tippecanoe to the Mad 
River Valley near Osborn, are no longer occupied by streams, having 
been produced by waters flowing from the ice sheet which once 
occupied the region (PL II) or by the present streams when flowing 
in channels since abandoned. 

The larger valleys are those of the Ohio, Miami, and Little Miami 
or of former channels of these streams. Of these, the Miami Valley 
has the broadest bottom, its width being 1 to 3 miles or more; the 
Ohio Valley is in few places more than a mile in width in this region. 



20 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

In general the valleys become shallower to the north, where they 
have a depth of only 100 or 200 feet below the adjoining upland, as 
compared to 400 feet or more near the Ohio. Near the Ohio the 
ravines formed by the small tributaries are a striking feature, cut- 
ting the surface into a complex series of sharp-crested ridges and 
V-shaped ravines, many of which, although very narrow, are hun- 
dreds of feet deep. 

Of the minor features of the valleys the terraces are of most 
interest. They occur mainly along the Ohio and lower courses of 
Miami and Little Miami rivers and Mill Creek and consist of flat- 
topped remnants of deposits that once filled a portion of the valleys 
to about 600 feet above sea level. 

MORAINES. 

The moraines are highly irregular topographic features, ranging 
from low rounded knolls to high hills and ridges characterized by 
sharp knolls and basins. In general they have no great height in 
southwestern Ohio, although a few rise 100 feet above the sur- 
rounding surface. Neither do they form high or continuous ridges 
in this region. 

DEAINAGE. 

The drainage of southwestern Ohio is here described because the 
considerable development of the underground waters is a direct 
result of the inferiority of the surface Avaters for many uses. 

Ohio River, the main stream of the region, rises in the mountains 
of Pennsylvania and West Virginia in regions where the rocks 
are prevailingly sandstone and shale with but little limestone and 
where there is either no drift at all or only drift composed of non- 
lime-bearing material. As a result the Ohio water is low in lime 
and magnesia and gives but little trouble in boilers. Unfortunately, 
however, it is very muddy and is undesirable for many industrial 
uses. It is also badly polluted by sewage from Pittsburgh and many 
small cities and towns, which makes it very dangerous for domestic 
use. 

Of the tributaries of the Ohio, Miami and Little Miami rivers 
and Mill and Whiteoak creeks are the most important. Unlike the 
Ohio, all of them have their sources either in limestone regions or 
in areas covered by highly calcareous drift from which the waters 
dissolve large quantities of lime and magnesia. These waters are, 
therefore, unfit for boiler use without treatment, and because of their 
muddiness are likewise unsuitable for many industrial uses. Their 
muddiness and the shortness of supply in times of drought has led 
to the sinking of numerous wells to supply the jDaper and other mills 
along the Miami. 



moL6m. 



21 



CLIMATE. 

Southwestern Ohio has a warm, moist climate in summer and a 
moderately cold but humid climate in winter. The rainfall is very 
equally distributed through the four seasons, from which it follows 
that somewhat over three-fourths of the precipitation occurs when 
the surface is unfrozen and when the water can penetrate the ground 
and join the underground supply. The evaporation is moderate, 
little ground water being lost in this way. In fact, the climatic 
conditions are favorable for the storage of large supplies in the 
ground, and the absence of these, except in the valleys, is due to the 
imperviousness and small porosity of the soils and rocks. 

Some of the statistics of climate and rainfall having a bearing on 
underground waters are given in the following table : ^ 

Climate and rainfall statistics at stations in soutMvestern Ohio. 





Cincin- 
nati. 


Das^toa. 


Ports- 
mouth. 


Precipitation (inches): 

Spring. . . ... 


9.9 
10.9 
7.9 
9.7 
38.4 


9.8 
9.9 
8.0 
8.9 
36.6 


10.4 


Summer 


11.5 


Autumn. . . . 


8.5 


Winter 


10.0 


Anniial. 


40.4 






Temperature (T.): 
Maximum 


105 

64 

-17 

47 

55 


108 
65 
-28 
42 
53 


106 




67 


Minimum 


^18 




45 


Mean annual 


56 






Average days over 90°. . 


25 

80 


36 
102 


37 


Average days under 32° 


89 






Frost: 

Latest killing frost in spring . . . 


Apr. 24 
Sept. 30 


May 5 
Sept. 19 


May 30 
Sept. 3 


Earliest killing frost in autumn 





GEOLOGY. 

STRATIGRAPHY. 
GENERAL SUCCESSION OF STRATA. 



The rocks of southwestern Ohio, restricting the term "rocks" to 
the hard consolidated beds commonly so called, are predominately 
limestone, every formation exposed at the surface being chiefly of 
this character, except the Eden and Utica shales, and even in the 
Eden many thin layers of limestone are interspersed with the shale 
at intervals of a few feet. Beneath the surface the known rocks 
Avith one exception — the St. Peter sandstone — are of similar charac- 

1 Compiled from the climatologic report of A. J. Henry : Bull. U. S. Weather Bureau 
No. Q, 1906, p. 714. 



22 



Ui^DERGROUi^D WATERS Of SOtJTitWESTJlRH Ofild. 



ter. This succession of hundreds of feet of limestone with almost 
no sandy water-bearing beds, makes the problem of water supply 
especially difficult. Fortunately, however, the surface is covered by 
a sheet of unconsolidated pebbly clay underlain locally by some sand 
and gravel, and nearly all the larger valleys are deeply filled with 
sand, gravel, or unconsolidated glacial material. The age, thickness, 
character, and water supply of the rocks are shown in the table given 
below. The distribution of the hard rocks is shown by the geologic 
map (PI. I) and that of the unconsolidated material by the map of 
the Quaternary deposits (PL II). 

Oeologic fonnations in fiouth western Ohio and their ivater sii/pplies. 



^ 


Formation. 


Character and thick- 
ness. 


Water supply. 




Weathered outcrops. 


Deeper drilled wells. 


a 


Alluvium. 
Terrace gravels. 
Loess. 

Wisconsin drift. 
lUinoian drift. 
Old gravels. 








i 

1 

O 


Mississippian sand- 
stone. 








i 

q 
o 

t 
ft 


Ohio shale. 










"Helderberg" lime- 
stone. 








.1 


"Niagara" limestone.a 


Bedded or massive 
gray to buff lime- 
stone, varying from 
granular to compact 
and commonly char- 
acterized by small 
openings lined with 
minute crystals. 
Thickness, 250 feet. 


Considerable water 
yielded to shallow 
wells. 


Moderata amounts usu- 
ally found in bas£.l 
layers just above 
contact with imder- 
lying "Clinton" 
limestone or above 
particular included 
layers of shale. Less 
amoimts in joints or 
solution passages in 
other portions. 


OQ 


"Clinton" limestone.a 


Massive buff to pink- 
ish horizontal or 
cross-bedded lime- 
stone, composed 
largely of minute 
shell fragments. 
Few joints or bed- 
ding partings 
Thickness, 50 feet. 


Amoimts generally 
small, but some shal- 
low wells obtain sup- 
plies. Usually acts as 
impervious bed and 
gives rise to springs 
along upper con- 
tact. 


Moderate amounts in 
joints, bedding 
planes, and solution 
passages; springs nu- 
merous at top and 
bottom. 



a Niagara as used by the Survey includes all of the limestone described in this report as "Niagara" and 
"Clinton," but in order to avoid confusion to the reader accustomed to the old nomenclature, and because 
of the lack of established names for the subdivisions here recognized, the use of the old names is con- 
tinued in this report. 




26 Maes 



GEOLOGIC MAP OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO 



CompHed by Myron L Fuller 

from field obser»»tlon5,map9 of the 

Geological Survey of Ohio, and 

A.F'foSste '' 



LV 



.O 



'eotogic formaiions in southwestern Ohio and their water supplies — Continued. 



. 


Formation. 


Character and thick- 
ness. 


Water supply. 


1 


Weathered outcrops. 


Deeper drilled wells. 




Richmond and Mays- 
ville formations. 


Gray to blue lime- 
stone layers 2 to 10 
inches thick, alter- 
nating with shales. 
Prevailingly calcare- 
ous throughout most 
of thickness, which 
is 550 feet. 


Yields moderate sup- 
plies to shallow wells. 


Amount of water very 
variable, the major- 
ity of deep wells ob- 
taining vary small 
supplies or none at 
all. Water in some 
wells brackish and in 
a few slightly sul- 
phurous. 




Eden and Utica shales. 


Gray shales, weather- 
ing brownish. 
Thickness, 250 feet. 


Furnishes small sup- 
plies to shallow wells. 


Rarely water bearing. 
No successful deep 
wells known. 


1 

o 


Point Pleasant forma- 
tion (contains true 
Trenton fossils). 


Dark, hard, compact 
shale; layers 2 to 10 
inches or more thick, 
altemat i n g with 
beds of impure gray 
limestones of similar 
thickness. Forma- 
tion, 150 feet thick. 


Outcrop is below level 
of Ohio flood plain. 
Not utilized by shal- 
low wells. 


Carries water locally, 
but success of drill- 
ing is imcertain. 
Some of the water is 
salty or sulphurous. 




"Birdseye" lime- 
stone (so-called 
"Trenton" lime- 
stone of drillers). 


Massive compact gray- 
ish limestone,break- 
ing with conchoidal 
fracture. Thickness, 
600 feet. 


Does not outcrop in 
southwestern Ohio. 


More or less water gen- 
erally present but 
commonly salty. 
Not to be depended 
on for supplies of 
fresh water. 




St. Peter sandstone. 


Porous calcareous 
sandstone. Thick- 
ness, 400 feet. 


Does not outcrop in 
southwestern Ohio. 


Yields abundant sup- 
plies of "Blue Lick" 
sulpho-saline water, 
which rises 175 feet 
above low water of 
Ohio. 


1 

.2 
% 

'H 
o 

1 




Varicolored dolomitic 
limestones and mar- 
bles with i)0ssibly 
shale in some places. 
Thickness. 3,000 feet, 
more or less. 


Does not outcrop in 
southwestern Ohio. 


Carries little or no wa- 
ter at depths at 
which it occurs in 
southwestern Ohio. 


1 




Probably prevailingly 
sandy (not pene- 
trated). 


Does not outcrop in 
southwestern Ohio. 


Never penetrated in 
southwestern Ohio. 
Waters likely to be 
strongly mineralized 
and unusable. 



UNCONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS. 

ALLUVIUM AND GLACIAL VALLEY FILLING. 



Allu ;um comprises stream deposits such as the gravel, sand, or 
clay filjings of the valleys. In southwestern Ohio it is present in 
greater .r less amounts in all valleys, except a few sharp ravines near 



24 tJifl^EtlGflOtJl^D WATEES OF BOUTHWEsTEJllif OHIO. 

the Ohio and other large streams, where the small tributaries may 
flow on the bare rock. Naturally, the alluvium is considerably devel- 
oped along Ohio Eiver, where it has a depth of 100 to 168 feet, 
as shown by the bridge, waterworks, and well borings at or near 
Cincinnati. Its width in places may be 2 miles or more. Similar 
deposits occur along the Miami, Little Miami, Mill Creek, and nu- 
merous other rivers and large creeks, some of them reaching a width 
of 1 to IJ miles, as on the Little Miami near Cincinnati. Few borings 
have been sunk through the alluvium in these valleys, but the depths 
in their lower portions are probably very similar to those in the Ohio. 
The thickness of the deposits doubtless decreases gradually upstream 
to the north, although wells as much as 70 feet deep failed to reach 
rock in the valley of Miami Eiver at Dayton. 

Superficially the alluvium generally consists of a sandy silt, but 
sand or gravel is usually found not far from the surface and con- 
tinues to the bottom, except for a few more clayey beds at intervals. 
According to the statements of drillers, sand predominates in most 
wells, the gravels usually being rather fine and in beds of no great 
thickness. Probably, however, the tendency is to underestimate the 
amount of gravel, as usually only the sand is brought to the surface 
from the well. In fact, most of the wells, being of the driven type, 
give little evidence of the materials penetrated. 

The pebbles in the gravel include many granitic fragments, -pre- 
sumably from the Canadian highlands, and have evidently been 
derived from the glacial drift of the region. Not all of the alluvium 
is of recent origin, however. In fact, except within 15 or 20 miles 
of the Ohio the greater portion is older than the last ice advance 
and is overlain in places by distinct morainal deposits of that stage. 
In general, however, the drift does not appear at the surface, appar- 
ently being covered by a relatively thin coating of glacial outwash or 
recent alluvium. It is probable that many of the reported clay layers 
are really beds of till. The drift layers are not clearly recognized in 
wells and are doubtless generally of no great thickness. 

The surface elevation of the alluvium ranges from 450 or 500 feet 
near the Ohio to about 900 feet in the northern part of the area. 

TEKEACE GRAVELS. 

Terrace gravels differ from alluvium in being the result of past 
rather than present stream action, for they stand distinctly above the 
level of existing flood plains. In general, the terrace materials are 
somewhat coarser than the alluvium, gravels as a rule largely pre- 
dominating. Sand and clayey sand layers are not uncommon, how- 
ever, and serve to collect the waters, which not infrequently deposit 
enough iron along the upper contacts to bind the sand or gravel 
into a hard stony mass, known locally as " cement rock." One of 



T I oHoJlari&l 



W^^S^^^":^W^WS7^j^^H, 



TER.SUPPLY PAPER 259 PL4TE II 



flNewMooi efield Y ^ I 




MAP OF SOUTHWf^STERN OHIO. SHOWING QUATERNARY DEPOSITS modif;cStionsbyMyr^,;T.FuU 



these layers (Pi. VI, B^ p. 44) is very near the surface, but others 
occur at greater depths and have an important influence on ground- 
water supplies. Many of the pebbles are granitic, having been 
derived from drift materials brought down by the ice from the 
Canadian highlands. 

The terraces are found mainly along the valley of the Ohio and 
not more than 15 or 20 miles up the valleys of its tributaries. In the 
immediate vicinity of the Ohio they reach a maximum elevation of 
600 feet and are covered with several feet of the fine yellowish clayey 
silt known to geologists as loess. The best example of this high 
terrace is in the broad gravel-filled depression, supposed to be an 
old channel of the Ohio, connecting the present valleys of Little 
Miami Eiver and Mill Creek northeast of Cincinnati. Madisonville, 
Oakley, and Norwood are upon its crest, and St. Bernard and Bond 
Hill rest upon an extension which runs up Mill Creek valley east of 
Carthage, Hartwell, and Wyoming to Keading. Along the Ohio 
few terrace remnants are left, but in protected spots a few benches 
may be seen. North of Cincinnati the materials are mainly gravels, 
but some old till beds of considerable thickness may be included. In 
many places the gravel layers have been cemented by iron and break 
away in big conglomerate bowlders where the deposits are cut by 
streams. 

From the level of the higher terrace down to a few feet above the 
present flood plains of the streams are a number of intermediate 
gravel terraces. Of these the 550-foot terrace near the Cincinnati 
pumping station at California, the 550- foot terraces on both sides of 
the Ohio near Home City, the 570 and 600 foot terraces at Terrace 
Park and Milford on the Little Miami, the 550 to 600 foot terraces 
at many points along the Miami south of Hamilton, as well as the 
less extensive benches along many of the smaller tributaries, should 
be mentioned. 

Along the tributaries of the Ohio the alluvium gradually rises 
upstream, approaching ever nearer to the altitude of the benches, 
which are more nearly flat, until at 15 to 20 miles from the Ohio it 
reaches the level of the highest loess-covered terrace and merges 
with it. Farther up the alluvium everywhere covers the terrace, 
reaching in the northern part of the area altitudes of over 900 feet, 
or 300 feet higher than its level near Cincinnati. 

LOESS. 

The loess, locally known as yellow loam, yellow clay, etc., is a 
fine, nearly structureless silt, Avith practically no coarse grains of 
any kind. It is yellowish buff in color, and although somewhat 
plastic when wet, is not a true clay. It contains few if any pebbles. 



and in this region is rarely if ever distinctly banded. It occurs at 
all elevations from that of the 600-foot terrace described in the pre- 
ceding section up to the highest crests near the Ohio at something 
over 900 feet. It is not found in place below the 600-foot level, nor 
does it occur north of the southern limits of the last or Wisconsin 
ice advance. (See PL II.) In southwestern Ohio the upland loess 
seems to be mainly if not altogether the result of wind deposition, 
but it is possible that the loess of the valley terraces is water de- 
posited and may have been, in fact, the original source of the upland 
material. 

MORAINAL DRIFT. 

Morainal drift is the term applied to the ridges of gravel or 
pebbly clay formed at the margins of the ice sheets that invaded the 
region in the geologic epoch immediately preceding the present. 
They are not true connected ridges, but are rather hills irregularly 
grouped together into more or less well-defined belts. (See PL II.) 
The older drift sheet thins out gradually to a mere fringe of pebbles, 
with no noticeable ridge at its edge; but the later or Wisconsin 
drift is marked by a number of ridges both at its southern limit and 
at several points where it halted temporarily during its retreat. 
Being formed mainly at the ice margins where considerable water 
resulted from melting, morainal deposits are generally gravelly and 
lack the compactness characteristic of drift which has been overridden 
by the heavy ice sheet ; in some places, however, they contain con- 
siderable amounts of subglacial till. The gravel is commonly strati- 
fied, but generally the layers are very irregular and slope at high 
angles, owing to their deposition by tumultuous waters. In general 
they rest on till surfaces, which form impervious bottom layers. 
The ridges are not commonly very high, 20 to 30 feet being a common 
maximum on the upland, though exceeded in some places; in the 
valleys, especially on the sides, the ridges are much more conspicuous. 



The till is a heterogeneous mixture of clay and pebbles, with sporadic 
bowlders. In southwestern Ohio there are at least two tills repre- 
senting differing glacial stages, the older being known as Illinoian 
and the younger as Wisconsin. The Illinoian, in its upper weathered 
portion, is yellowish or reddish, but below a depth of 10 or 15 feet it is 
an unoxidized grayish mass. In it clay predominates, making a firm, 
compact, impervious mass, in which pebbles are relatively few and of 
small size. The Wisconsin commonly contains less clay and more 
numerous and larger bowlders, consisting largely of limestone, shale, 
or other local rocks, though including many of granite from Canada. 
The mass is generally structureless, but in places an indistinct banding 



SUPPLY PAPER 259 PLATE I 




MAP OF SOUTHUTCSTEKNT OHIO, SHOWING THICKNESS OF WATEB-BEARING SURI--ACE DEPOSITS 

ByMyi-onl, . FuTlei- 

Purveyed in 1907 



may be noted, and more rarely a thin band of stratified gravel is seen. 
The distribution of the till is shown by Plate II. It will be noted 
that with the exception of the valleys and the southern portions of 
Brown and Adams counties the whole of the region is covered with 
the till mantle. The map also brings out the limits of the late drift 
sheet and the extension beyond it of the earlier glacial drift. Near 
Ohio River and along the eastern margin of the outer drift the depos- 
its are very thin, but the thickness increases to the northwest until in 
the northern part of the area the true drifts have a local united 
thickness of 100 to 150 feet or more. The variations in the thicknesses 
are shown on Plate III. 

The till mantles the entire uplands and in places extends beneath 
the valleys (PL II), although it is not usually seen because of the 
covering of later alluvium. In the Ohio Valley most of the till has 
been removed by erosion since its deposition and it is now only found 
on the uplands. 

The till represents accumulations of glacial materials dragged 
along and deposited beneath the ice sheets which covered the region 
in the geologic epoch immediately preceding the present. The layers 
of gravel and sand represent the work of streams or other bodies of 
water occurring beneath the ice. The lower and older drift is made 
up mainly of materials derived from the weathered rock surface over 
which the ice moved, the major part being from local rocks and a 
smaller proportion from Canadian rocks. The later or upper drift 
has less material derived directly from the local rocks, the larger pro- 
portion coming from the earlier drift or loess over which the ice 
moved, but with a considerable admixture of rock fragments from 
Canada. 

OLD GRAVELS. 

On the uplands southeast of Mount Washington, a few miles east 
of the mouth of Little Miami River, a small area of sand and gravel, 
apparently underlying loess and old till, appears to be of very early 
origin, its accumulation probably having taken place either in the 
latter part of the Tertiary period or in the early part of the Pleisto- 
cene or " glacial " epoch. This is borne out by the finding of masto- 
don teeth in a well sunk at Mount Washington. The gravel in which 
the fossils were found lies only 15 feet below the surface and con- 
sists of large flat pebbles standing partly on end, as in many of the 
present streams of the region, indicating that the stream was a rapid 
one. The entire deposit is very thin, shale being entered at 20 feet. 
The gravels have an altitude of 700 to 750 feet and are limited to a 
square mile or two southeast of Mount Washington, known locally 
as the American Flats, and to a much smaller area at the northern 
edge of the town. 



28 triTMRGBOXTNI) WATURS Of SOUtilWESfERlT OHIO. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

" NIAGARA " LIMESTONE.^ 

Character. — The "Niagara" limestone of southwestern Ohio is 
about 250 feet thick. In color it varies from very light gray through 
darker and bluish gray to buff. In general it is rather massive, pre- 
senting relatively few bedding planes. In fact, in the large quarry 
north of Mad River west of Springfield the writer did not see a 
single parting in a quarry face 50 feet in height, and even on blasting 
the rock broke into irregular fragments without reference to any 
structural planes. Elsewhere, however, the bedding is very marked, 
though in some places it is inconspicuous until brought out by 
weathering (PL VII, A, p. 45). The difference in the spacing of 
the parting planes in the lower unweathered and in the upper 
weathered portions is very noticeable. The texture varies from com- 
pact to granular, the former prevailing in the grayish types, and 
the latter being more common in the more open and therefore more 
weathered buff varieties. Many small openings varying in width 
from a fraction of an inch upward occur and are generally lined with 
coatings of minute crystals. In a very few places these openings are 
so numerous as to give the rock a superficial resemblance to the 
calcareous tufa deposited by limestone springs. Fossils are present, 
but are not nearly so numerous as in many other formations. They 
indicate a marine origin for the limestone. 

The "Niagara" limestone outcrops around the borders of the 
region but dips gently away at the rate of 5 to 10 feet a mile both 
to the north and east. (See PI. I.) It is the highest rock in the 
area, being overlain only by the glacial drift. The elevation of its 
outcrop commonly ranges from 900 to 1,000 feet. 

" CLINTON " LIMESTONE.^ 

The " Clinton " limestone of southwestern Ohio, a relatively thin 
bed nowhere more than 50 feet thick, occurs at the base of the 
"Niagara" limestone and is shown on the geologic map (PI. I) as a 
narrow band just south and west of the outcrop of the "Niagara." 
It is predominantly of a buff color but is nearly always characterized 
by a pinkish tinge or by streaks of red which suggest the iron-bearing 
layers of other regions and assist greatly in its identification. It 
seems to be composed largely of minute fragments of marine fossils 
which were rolled about hj the sea and finally deposited in horizontal 

1 Niagara as used by the Survey includes all the limestones described in this report as 
" Niagara " and " Clinton," but in order to avoid confusion to the reader accustomed to 
the old nomenclature and because of the lack of established names for the subdivisions 
here recognized the use of the old names is continued in this report. 



GEOLOGY. 29 

and cross-bedded layers. Bedding planes are more numerous than 
in the massive portions of the " Niagara," but the rock is denser and 
more insoluble and the bedding planes are less commonly developed 
as water passages, except near the base. Joints are very few in num- 
ber. Altogether, the " Clinton " is a rather resistant rock and makes 
numerous abrupt scarps along the sides of many bluffs. (See PI. VII, 
B, p. 45.) 

RICHMOND AND MAYSVILLE FORMATIONS. 

Taken together the beds of the Richmond and Maysville formations 
are about 550 feet thick and consist mainly of thin layers, 1 to 10 
inches thick, of gray or bluish limestone, alternating with similar or 
somewhat greater thickness of soft bluish shales (PL VIII, B^ p. 46). 
Both shales and limestones become yellow or brown by weathering. 
Outcrops near Cincinnati show a considerable thickness of rather 
fine shales at the top of the Maysville and at the base of the Rich- 
mond, but other parts of the formations are predominantly of lime- 
stone. Geologically the Richmond and Maysville can be divided, but 
considered as water bearers they are essentially a unit and are there- 
fore generally treated together in this report. The distinction be- 
tween them is seldom recognized in wells and they appear to carry 
water of the same general quality. The limestone layers abound in 
fossils that indicate the marine origin of the beds. 

The Richmond and Maysville forma ti«is are far more extensive 
areally than any other formation in southwestern Ohio (see PI. I), 
extending from the "Clinton" outcrop in Preble and Montgomery 
counties to Ohio River, and from central Greene, Clinton, and High- 
land counties to the Indiana line, thus constituting the surface rocks 
over the greater part of the region. They reach their highest eleva- 
tion near their northern limit, where they stand as much as 975 feet 
above sea level. From this elevation they descend to less than 500 
feet along the line where they cross the Ohio, in southeastern Cler- 
mont County. At Cincinnati their top is about 550 feet above sea 
level or 430 feet above the river. 

EDEN AND UTICA SHALES. 

The Eden shale consists of soft light and dark gray shales that 
weather yellow or brown on exposure. At the base of the Eden shale 
there are a few feet of drab shale representing the Utica shale. 
These two formations have a combined thickness of about 250 feet, 
nearly all of which belongs to the Eden shale. They are free from 
limestone, except for local layers in the Eden most of which are 1 to 4 
inches thick and are sej)arated by several feet of shale. They con- 
tain salt-water fossils, which indicate their marine orioin. As the 



30 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

Eden shale is among the lower formations, it outcrops only in the 
deep valley of the Ohio and in the lower portions of its tributaries 
(PL I) . The upper part of the Eden surface near Cincinnati is about 
720 feet above sea level and its bottom is 470 feet above sea level or 50 
feet above lower water of the Ohio. 

POINT PLEASANT FORMATION. 

The term " Point Pleasant " is applied to the series of thin beds of 
alternating limestones and shales carrying true Trenton fossils and 
occurring immediately below the Utica shale in the vicinity of Cin- 
cinnati and along Ohio Kiver both to the east and the west. At Cin- 
cinnati the Point Pleasant has a thickness of about 150 feet, but only 
30 or 40 feet of this is above low-water mark, the top being consider- 
ably below the Ohio flood plain. The shales are dark-gray, hard, 
compact layers, 2 inches to a foot or more thick, and the limestones 
are impure grayish beds of about the same thickness. The heavier 
bedding and the more massive or compact character of the rock 
distinguish it from higher beds. It carries numerous marine fossils. 

" BIRDSEYE " LIMESTONE. 

The " Birdseye " limestone,^ the so-called '' Trenton " limestone 
of well drillers, is generally a massive, compact^ grayish limestone, 
breaking with curved fractures, but at some points, as in the oil 
regions, it appears to be dolomitic and more or less porous in its 
upper part. In southwestern Ohio its total thickness is about 600 
feet, but it does not outcrop, its upper part, or contact with the 
Point Pleasant formation, being about 100 feet below the level of 
Ohio River at Cincinnati. 

During the oil and gas boom of 25 to 30 years ago many wells 
were sunk to the " Birdseye." From the data thus obtained the 
depth to the formation throughout the area became known and it 
was possible to construct a map (PI. IV) shoAving by contours the 
elevation of its surface above sea level. Comparison with the eleva- 
tion of the surface of the ground (see PI. IV) gives the depth to 
the " Birdseye " at any particular point. The surface of the " Birds- 

1 Detailed investigations by E. O. Ulrich and others, made since the field work for the 
present report was compJeted, show that the geology beneath Cincinnati is far more com- 
plicated than has hitherto been supposed and that the elevation of the " Birdseye " lime- 
stone is considerably greater in the vicinity of the city, at least locally, than appears to 
be indicated by the structure contours of Plate IV. It is possible, if not probable, how- 
ever, that the so-called " Trenton," upon which the structure contours are actually based, 
is not the top, but rather a lower and harder bed within the " Birdseye." If this is so, 
it will account in large measure for the discrepancies between the contours of the map 
and the elevations of the " Birdseye," as given in the text. 



., GEOLOGICAL SUBVE 




MAP OF SOUTHWESTERN t^HlO, SHOMTNG ARTESIAN CONDITIONS 

By Myron L .PuUer 



GEOLOGY. 



31 



eye " serves as a convenient reference horizon for other formations, 
notably for the water-bearing bed in the St. Peter sandstone below. 



ST. PETER SANDSTONE. 



The St. Peter sandstone in southwestern Ohio appears to be a 
shaly and calcareous, but more or less open, sandstone about 400 feet 
thick. It lies about 850 feet below the surface at Cincinnati, from 
which elevation it descends northward and eastward to a still greater 
depth before rising again. Its nearest outcrop is in southeastern 
Wisconsin, about 350 miles from Cincinnati. Eastward and south- 
ward it seems to thin out and disappear. Its porosity probably is 
due largely to the removal of the lime that originally filled the spaces 
between the sand grains. 

CAMBRIAN AND ORDOVICIAN DOLOMITE. 

The Cambrian and Ordovician dolomite lies, according to well 
records, about 1,225 feet below the surface at Cincinnati, its nearest 
outcrop being in the Appalachian region 200 miles southeast. It 
appears to be a buff, brownish, pink, or reddish dolomitic limestone 
or marble, possibly with a sporadic bed or two of shale. It was pene- 
trated to a depth of about 1,000 feet by the well at the Moerlein 
brewery, but its bottom has never been reached. Observations in 
Tennessee lead to the belief that it is at least 3,000 feet thick. 

STRUCTURE. 

The part of southwestern Ohio herein discussed lies on the crest 
and flanks of what is known to geologists as the Cincinnati anticline. 
It is a broad rock arch or dome, the center of which is near Cin- 
cinnati. From it the rocks dip gently away to the east, north, and 
west, but rise to a still higher point in central Kentucky to the south. 
Nothing in the surface relief indicates the presence of this anticline, 
and it is recognized only by geologic studies. On Plate IV contour 
lines, or lines drawn through points of equal elevation, on the " Birds- 
eye " limestone, as determined by well borings, are shown. Parallel 
to these contour lines the rock is horizontal, whereas at right angles 
it dips away at a rate indicated by the distance to the next contour, 
which is just 50 feet lower than the first. The rate varies from a 
little more than 10 feet to the mile near Miamisburg to about 3 feet 
to the mile in western Hamilton County and near Dayton. The con- 
tours also bring ol^t the fact that the dome is not entirely regular 
but is marked by a crease of steeper dips along a line from Dayton 
to Hamilton, 



32 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

UNDERGROUND WATERS. 
RELATION TO SURFACE FEATURES. 

So intimate is the relation of underground water to surface features 
that in many places the former may be said to be largely controlled 
by the latter. Thus, the amount of water absorbed depends to a large 
extent on the slope of the catchment surface ; the direction and rate 
of movement of underground waters, especially of the shallower 
waters, depend largely on the direction and slope of the surface ; the 
shape of the water table conforms in general to the surface configura- 
tion; the leakage from water-bearing beds as a rule depends on the 
cutting of the beds by depressions of the surface ; and the depth, head, 
volume, and many other factors are materially affected or controlled 
by the character of the land surface. The study of surface features 
is therefore of great importance in all underground water investi- 
gation. 

In southwestern Ohio, where the plateau constitutes the greater 
part of the surface, it is naturally an important source of ground 
water, the occurrence of which is intimately related to the nature of 
the surface formation, whether this be drift or rock, to the width of 
the plateau remnants where cut by valleys and ravines, and to the 
nearness of the bluffs at its edges. 

On the sharp and narrow crests between the ravines the rainfall 
is quickly shed to each side, very little soaking into the ground ; and 
even the small amount absorbed drains rapidly from the narrow 
ridges, leaving them little or no ground water above the level of the 
valley bottoms. 

For similar reasons the amount of ground water decreases toward 
the edges of the valleys. A few miles back from these borders, espe- 
cially in the flatter portions, ground water usually lies very near the 
surface, often rising in wet seasons within 5 feet of the top; but as 
the valley is approached the water level becomes much lower, until 
near the edge no water whatever may be found within reach of ordi- 
nary wells, both soils and rocks being completely drained. 

Though the above generalizations are true throughout the area, 
whatever the nature of the deposits, the shortage of water is much 
more marked in certain types of materials. Wliere the surface ma- 
terials are loose and porous sands and gravels the loss of the water 
is much more rapid than where they are pebbly clays and other 
relatively impervious materials. Likewise the loss is greatest in 
porous rocks and in those which, like the limestones, have numerous 
bedding planes and small solution passages that permit the ready 
escape of the water, and is least in impervious shales. 

Although on account of their small area the valleys are not the 
most common source of ground water in southwestern Ohio, they are 



UNDEEGBOUND WATEES. 33 

in many ways the most important, as they furnish supplies not only 
for three-fourths of the waterworks in the region, but for most of 
the manufacturing plants as well. The abundance of water is due 
to several causes. As the valleys are much lower than the surround- 
ing hills they form natural lines of drainage, toward which the water 
in the rocks, as well as that upon the surface, moves. The water 
falling on the hillsides likewise finds its way to the valleys and is 
added to the supply. The main reason for the importance of the 
valleys as a source of water, however, arises from the gravel and 
sand with which the larger ones are filled to considerable depths; 
these materials, which have porosities of 25 to 40 per cent, hold 
immense quantities of water, which is readily given up to wells. 

SOURCE. 
POPULAR CONCEPTIONS. 

In view of the number of different popular conceptions as to- the 
source of the underground waters in southwestern Ohio a few words 
on the subject may not be out of place. In this, as in other regions 
in Ohio and in the upper Mississippi Valley, it is a common belief 
that the waters are derived through subterranean passages from the 
Great Lakes. The level of Lake Michigan is 581 feet, which is only 
75 feet above Cincinnati, and with the exception of a few of the 
valleys is several hundred feet below the general level of this part 
of Ohio. The elevation alone, therefore, precludes such a source for 
the waters. 

Along the Ohio another view, namely, that the ground water is 
derived from the river, is widely held by the people, who have long 
noted that in many places only the wells at or near river level pro- 
cure water. Careful studies of the ground waters, however, have 
shown that they move in a manner similar to surface waters ; that is, 
from the hills toward the valleys, and join the streams or under- 
ground flows in the latter just as surely as the tributary joins the 
master surface stream. When the river rises it backs up both the 
surface streams and the ground waters, which explains the fluctua- 
tions in ground-water level. Only when sudden floods lift the river 
faster than the ground water can come in do movements away from 
the river take place. Even then the water does not penetrate far 
inland. 

LOCAL SOURCES. 

The independence of the ground waters, even when near the river, 
is indicated by their composition, Avhich is almost always quite differ- 
ent from that of the surface waters, the ground waters usually carry- 
49130''— wsp 259—12 ^3 



34 



UNDEEGKOUND WATEKS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



ing ver}' much larger quantities of mineral matter than the river 
water. Wells only 20 feet from the bank, if lightly pumped, will 
ordinarily draw from the ground water rather than the river, and 
wells sunk considerably below the river bed are even less likely to 
draw from the stream. If the wells are heavily pumped, however, 
river water may be drawn in. The nature of the ground-water move- 
ments and the reason why wells adjacent to rivers seldom get river 
waters is shown by figure 2. 

Most of the ground water in vallej^s percolates from the surround- 
ing hills, working its way doAvnward through joints or fissures and 




Figure 2. — Cross-section showing ground-water conditions in valleys. A, lightly pumped 
well not getting any of its water from the river ; B, heavily pumped well securing more 
or less river water. 

outward along bedding planes or other partings. That coming from 
below is relatively small in amount. On the hilltops the water is 
mainly derived directly from the rainfall and represents the portion 
not yet absorbed by the deeper rocks. 



GENERAL SOURCES. 



The water of the deeper rocks in southwestern Ohio is derived 
mainly in one or the other of two ways: (1) By absorption at their 
outcrops, and (2) by penetration downward through joints. 




Figure 3. — Geologic cross-section of southwestern Ohio, a, Cambrian and Ordovician 
dolomite ; h, St. Peter sandstone ; c, *' Birdseye " limestone (so-called " Trenton " of 
well drillers) ; d, Toint Pleasant formation (Trenton fossils) ; e, Eden shale (including 
at base a small thickness of Utica shale) ; f, Maysville formation; g, Richmond forma- 
tion ; h, " Clinton " limestone ; i, " Niagara " limestone ; j, till. Dotted line indicates 
sea level. 

From the geologic cross section (fig. 3) it is seen that the condi- 
tions of outcrop var}^ considerably. The " Niagara " limestone, which 
is the best Avater-bearing formation in the area, has a broad flat out- 
crop presenting abundant opportunity for the absorption of water 
from the overlying coating of drift materials, which serves as an 
The " Clinton," because of its hardness, not uncom- 



admirable feeder. 



UNDEKGKOUND WATERS. 



35 



monly forms steep slopes or scarps (PL VII, B^ p. 45) at its outcrop, 
making the absorption of water from the outcrop very difficult, 
especially as the drift " feeder " is in many places thin or absent. 
The limestones and shales of the Eichmond and Maysville formations 
have very favorable catchment conditions, the outcrop being both 
level and covered for the most part by a drift " feeder," but unfor- 
tunately these formations contain enough shale to greatly hinder the 
circulation of water. Moreover, the lower part of the Maysville 
formation outcrops mainly on the steep bluffs of the Ohio and of its 
larger tributaries and thus has little chance to absorb water. The 
Eden shale likewise outcrops mainly in steep cliffs, which fact, taken 
in connection with the prevailing shaly character, effectually keeps 
out the water, making the formation the poorest water bearer in the 
district. Only the upper part of the Point Pleasant formation out- 
crops in the region, but, owing to the solubility of the limstone layers, 
it absorbs considerable water locally. These rocks outcrop farther 
south in Kentucky, but it is doubtful whether any of the water which 




FiGUEE 4. — Section illustrating the feeding of water beds through joints (water-bearing 
joints indicated by the heavier lines). A, B, Water horizon between limestone and 
compact, jointed rock fed by joints at A and B ; C, water horizon between shale and 
compact jointed rocks with local circulation only ; D, water horizon fed from sandstone 
bed ; E, sandstone bed fed by joints ; 1, flowing well from bedding plane between lime- 
stone and compact jointed rocks ; 2, dry hole (no circulation along bedding plane) ; 
3, flowing well from bedding plane fed from sandstone. 

they contain in southwestern Ohio comes from this source. The 
" Birdseye " limestone does not outcrop in Ohio, but does outcrop 
over an extensive area in central Kentucky. Being locally rather 
soluble it is possible that some of the water may penetrate from the 
outcrop. The St. Peter sandstone does not appear at the surface 
anywhere to the south or east, apparently thinning out in these direc- 
tions. To the north it comes to the surface in southern Wisconsin, 
about 350 miles from Cincinnati, where it has an elevation of about 
800 or 900 feet. In view of the large volume of water which it con- 
tains, and of the thick covering of overlying beds, it seems likely that 
much of its supply is derived from the distant outcrop. 

Besides the water which enters at the outcrop, much undoubtedly 
penetrates to the underlying beds through joints, as is shown dia- 
grammatically in figure 4, in which A and B represent joints feeding 
a limestone furnishing water to well 1; C, a joint feeding a local 
bedding plane; D, a bedding plane connecting with sandstone fed 
by joint E and furnishing water to well 3. 



36 UNDEKGEOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

It is probable that the water which so abounds at the top of the 
" Clinton " limestone reaches it in part through joints in the " Niag- 
ara " beds, as at A and B in the figure. Some water may reach the 
top of the Eden shale through joints in the Richmond and Maysville 
formations, but because of the insoluble character of the rocks the 
circulation is very slight, as at C in the figure. It is also barely 
possible that some of the water of the St. Peter may reach it through 
joints, but the amount so derived is probably very small. 

OCCURRENCE. 

Water's in rock. — The underground waters derived in the several 
ways outlined above occur in the rocks under many conditions. In 
absolute amount that in the pores or spaces between the particles 
which make up the rock is probably greatest, but unfortunately in 
many of the finer-grained rocks the water in the pores, though abun- 
dant, is so firmly held that little or none of it is yielded to wells. 
In southwestern Ohio the St. Peter sandstone is the only formation 
that yields large amounts of water from the pores of the rock itself, 
the other formations giving it up only when it occurs along joints, 
bedding planes, solution passages, or similar openings. 

Joints are smooth fracture planes cutting the rock in different 
directions. In limestone the joint openings are at first hardly appre- 
ciable, but as the waters work their way downward they gradually 
dissolve mineral matter from the walls, widening the joints until the 
water moves freely. Such a joint in the " Niagara " limestone is shown 
in Plate V, A. So universal is circulation of this type that a joint 
is rarely found which does not possess solution features or iron- 
stained walls that give evidence of the passage of water. 

Bedding planes are even more important as water bearers than 
are the joints, for the water seeps along them at many points. The 
bedding planes, like the joints, are at first not generally actual open- 
ings; they simply represent lines along which the water percolates 
by reason of imperfect adhesion between layers of different texture 
or different materials. Under the action of the water s^ however, 
they rapidly widen and afford passage for large amounts of water. 
The openings differ, however, from those of the joints. Instead of 
forming an open crack the waters dissolve a complicated system of 
meandering passages, such as those shown in Plate V, B, which repre- 
sents a bedding plane in the Maysville formation. 

As the joints and bedding planes become wider the water tends 
to concentrate along certain lines, forming solution passages, many 
of which are of considerable size. Plate V, A, shows a spring issuing 
from such a passage, which was uncovered and traced for a long 
distance during the process of quarrying. Plate VI, A (p. 44) , shows 
another solution opening in the same quarry. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 259 PLATE V 




A. LARGE SOLUTION CHANNELS IN NIAGARA LIMESTONE. 
Due to enlargement of vertical joints. Spring issues from bedding plane on left. 




B. RAMIFYING SOLUTION CHANNELS ALONG BEDDING PLANE IN MAYSVILLE FORMATION. 
Showing circulation of rock waters. About one-fourth natural size. 



UNDEKGEOUND WATEKS. 37 

Waters in drift. — The drift includes the local irregular gravelly 
heaps and ridges and the pebbly clay or till which overlie the rocks 
of most of the area (PL II). The clay is not the ordinary compact, 
impervious, water-laid clay, but carries in places more or less sand 
and pebbles, which are either irregularly distributed through the 
mass, converting it into a heterogeneous mixture, or form more or 
less well-defined sandy or gravelly layers. Nearly everywhere it 
contains considerable water, even in its more clayey portions, in 
much of which the water gathers into little tubular channels, as well 
as saturating the more porous sandy or gravelly portions. The 
drift not only directly supplies important amounts of water, but also 
serves as a feeder to the underlying rocks, which will absorb more 
water from it than if they were exposed directly to the rain. 

The more gravelly drift in the ridges contains little water, except 
in the very lowest parts, because of the ease with which it drains out 
from the open porous material. 

Waters in alluvium, etc. — All the larger stream valleys and many 
of the smaller ones contain considerable depths of clays, alternating 
with more open sands and gravels that hold great quantities of 
water and afford excellent supplies to many towns and to numerous 




Figure 5. — Section showing valley alluvium fed from bedding planes and solution pas- 
sages. A, Bedding plane, feeding alluvium with water derived from joint 1 ; B, joint 
feeding alluvium with water from joint 2 ; C, solution passage feeding alluvium. 

manufacturing establishments. Nearly all of this water enters from 
the higher lands bordering the valleys and joins the underflow by 
seepages from bedding planes and by flows from joint planes and 
solution passages (see fig. 5). Analogous conditions probably exist 
at hundreds of points along nearly every stream in the region. 

HEAD. 

Many of the wells on low ground, both those in rock and those in 
the alluvial fillings of the valleys, yield flowing water, and nearly 
everywhere the water is under artesian pressure, rising very mate- 
rially when encountered. The pressure, though depending on cer- 
tain general principles, differs considerably with the different mate- 
rials in which the water is contained and with the different degrees 
of confinement to which it is subjected. 

Waters in rock. — Water contained in rocks may be either uncon- 
fined, in the upper weathered portion of the rock masses, or it may lie 
deep and be confined under pressure in pores, joints, bedding planes, 
or solution passages. 



38 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



In deep confined waters the head is dependent on the factors that 
control the entrance of the water. Entering at the outcrop of sloping 
rocks, such as those of southwestern Ohio (fig. 3, p. 34) the water 
passes gradually downward under the action of gravity, is prevented 
from escape by overlying more or less impervious beds, and fills all 
the openings and pores which it can reach. As the beds are filled 
the water in their lower part is subjected to the pressure of the over- 
lying water, and, when reached by a well, will rise in proportion to 
the height of the water level in the higher portion of the bed, giving, 
if the surface is low enough, an artesian flow. 




FiGUEE 6. — Section showing conditions of flow in inclined porous bed, becoming thinner. 
A, Porous bed between impervious beds B and C, thinning out at E, thus furnishing 
conditions for flow at D, but not at F. Applied to the St. Peter sandstone, A would 
represent its Wisconsin outcrop, D the flowing wells at Cincinnati, and E its termina- 
tion somewhere to the south or east. 



The underground conditions controlling such flows differ consider- 
ably, some of the simplest being shown by figures 6 and 7, in which 
the water is represented as occurring in porous beds. In reality none 
of the beds in southwestern Ohio except the St. Peter sandstone is 
porous in the ordinary sense of the word, and the water really occurs 
in joints, solution passages, and bedding planes, in which the head 
depends on the source of the water and the conditions of retention. 
Where the opening drains freely into some valley or other depression 
the water may flow through the subterranean passages as does the 




FiGDBB 7. — Section showing conditions of flow in inclined porous bed, becoming impervi- 
ous. A, Porous bed between impervious beds B and C, grading into nonporous bed at 
E, the confinement giving rise to a flow at D but not at F. 

water of a surface stream over its bed, but where no ready escape 
offers the water accumulates, as in the porous beds previously de- 
scribed, subjecting the lower part to considerable pressure, whose de- 
gree varies with the level of the surface of the confined water. 

Waters in drift. — In general the drift surface has a considerable 
slope from north to south, its elevation declining from 1,100 feet near 
its northern limit to about 800 feet at its southern border. As already 
explained it is characterized by numerous passages or porous layers, 
many of which appear to slope in the same direction as the surface. 
It therefore occasionally happens that the pressure transmitted in 
such passages from some higher point farther north is sufficient to 
lift the water to the surface even on the flat plains, and flowing wells 



UNDEKGEOUND WATEES. 39 

result, as near Brookville in Montgomery County. The conditions 
are still more favorable in valleys or other depressions in the drift, 
in which flows are even more numerous. 

Waters in alluvium^ etc. — The head of the waters in the valleys is 
due to at least two different causes, one of which is the pressure trans- 
mitted from higher points farther upstream, and the other the pres- 
sure derived from the passages and lamination planes where the valley 
bottom is in drift or from joints, bedding planes, and solution pas- 
sages where it is in rock. In order to obtain a flow from upstream 
pressure the water must have free entrance upstream, and must be 
prevented from rising downstream by some clayey or other more or 
less impervious layer. A similar cover must be present to give a 
flow when the alluvium is fed from the rocks. Unfortunately such 
a cover is lacking in many localities or is too imperfect to confine the 
water, which escapes upward and joins the streams. It is because 
of this fact that flows are not more common in valleys. 

SUPPLY. 

By available water is meant that portion of the ground water 
which can be economically obtained by man. It does not include the 
amount held in the microscopic pores of the compact rocks and 
never yielded to wells in appreciable quantities, even though it may 
be present in amounts greater than the free water. 

Of the different materials in the region the drift and alluvium 
hold the largest percentages of available water. In the drift the 
amount probably varies from about 5 per cent in the clayey portions 
to 30 per cent or more in the more sandy or gravelly portions, the 
average probably being fully 15 per cent of the volume of the drift ; 
that is, a saturated layer 100 feet thick contains the equivalent of 
a 15-foot layer of water. In alluvium sandy materials generally pre- 
dominate, the average porosity being probably at least 20 or 25 per 
cent. 

In the solid rocks the percentage of water is generally less. Of 
the limestones. the " Niagara " and " Clinton " carry the most water, 
but even in these it is doubtful if the free water in a bed 100 feet 
thick would make a layer more than a foot deep. In the shaly lime- 
stones the amount is still less, there probably being not more than 
one-eighth or one-fourth as much as in the " Niagara," and in the 
shales the amount of free water is so small as to be practically neg- 
ligible. In the deeper limestones, such as the " Birdseye," the aggre- 
gate amount is considerable, but probably would not aggregate more 
than a few inches to each hundred feet, and in the still deeper 
Cambro and Ordovician dolomite the amount is very small indeed. 
The St. Peter sandstone is an exception among the rocks of the 



40 UNDERGEOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

region, for it probably carries at least 10 to 15 per cent of water, 
containing in its thickness of approximately 400 feet the equivalent 
of a 40 to 60 foot layer of water. 

Exclusive of the water of the St. Peter sandstone, which is too 
high in sulphur for ordinary use, and the water of the " Birdseye " 
limestone, which is very generally salty, by far the greater part of 
the water occurs either in the drift and alluvium or in the " Niagara " 
and " Clinton " limestones, both of which are at or near the surface 
in this area are easily reached in shallow wells. Rock wells that 
go below the level of the " Clinton " limestone have rather small 
chances of success, although a few obtain satisfactory supplies; the 
majority either fail entirely or get supplies too small for ordinary 
uses. Deep wells give no promise, for though in most places they 
can obtain water, it will generally be either salty or highly charged 
with sulphur. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

Practically all rocks contain more or less water, and differ only 
in the degree of their saturation. Those containing water in only 
small amounts may play an important part as confining beds and 
must be considered in any discussion of the water. The several 
formations recognized in southwestern Ohio and their water-bearing 
capacities are considered below. 

UNCONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS. 
ALLUVIUM AND GLACIAL VALLEY FILLING. 

Most of the water of the alluAdum and of the interbedded glacial 
deposits works its way downward from the surrounding highlands 
by seepage from bedding planes, along solution passages or through 
joints in the rocks in which the valley is cut. Occasionally, as during 
floods, when the water in the stream rises faster than that in the 
ground, the flow may be reversed and river water may penetrate the 
alluvium, on each side or may even force its way downward. As a 
rule, however, as is shown by the greater hardness of the water in 
the alluvium as compared with the river water, the alluvium contains 
chiefly the more mineralized waters from the rock hills. It also de- 
rives water directly from the rain that falls on its surface. 

Ordinarily the alluvium is sufficiently permeable to permit water 
to percolate through its entire body, which, in fact, is always satu- 
rated below the water level of the stream. In severe droughts the 
water level in the smaller and more steeply sloping valleys sinks 
below the level of the stream bed, and the channels, except perhaps 
for a pool here and there, become dry. In most valleys, however, the 
water level is not far below the surface and there is considerable 



WATEK-BEARING FOEMATIOKS. 



41 



underflow. All the water occurs in the pores or openings between 
the grains, the amount so held usually varying from 25 to 35 per cent 
of the bulk, according to the nature of the material. 

Although the alluvium is generally saturated with water below the 
level of the stream, all of this is not available for wells. Clayey 
materials, although perhaps containing 40 per cent of their bulk of 
water, hold it so firmly that little or none is given up to wells, and 
even sands do not jdeld all that they hold. In general, however, the 
sands and gravels yield their water freely, and in order to procure 
an abundant supply a well need only find a bed of material thick 
enough to permit the insertion of a sufficient length of strainer that 
is coarse enough to prevent the grains from passing through the 
screen. In most valleys such beds can be easily found, especially in 
the center, but in some the requisite sands or gravels are absent near 
the margins and the wells 
are failures. :.4^^^=S?^#^J7:^>^..ic_ d e 



TERRACE GRAVELS. 



en'e'r al ' undergrou nd 



■}sPfy':y\ 



'.'Sahd'S'- 



tvater/eye/:-.-- ■:■. 



Figure 8. — Diagram showing occurrence of water in 
terrace sands and gravels, a, Well obtaining 
water from local water-bearing basin at f; 
t, well missing local basin and stopping short of 
general water level ; c, well missing local basin, 
but obtaining water from general supply ; d, 
well reaching local basin g, but penetrating its 
impervious underlying layer and permitting the 
water to escape. 



The water in the terrace 
gravels, like that in the al- 
luvium, is derived from 
the rocks forming the val- 
ley walls, from rainfall on 
the terrace surfaces, and 
occasionally from back- 
water of the flooded 
streams, seepage from the 
valley walls being the 
principal source of the 
water in both the gravels 
and the alluvium. Waters derived directly from the rainfall are 
collected by the layers of cemented rock and do not immediately join 
the ground-water body; hence they are less important as a source 
of supply in the terrace gravels than in the alluvium. 

As already indicated, the terrace materials are generally open and 
porous, permitting the water, especially in the smaller terraces, to 
drain rapidly away, leaving only small supplies above the general 
ground-water level of the valley. In the broader terraces, such as 
those north of Cincinnati, the water may be held back by the friction 
of the sand and gravel and may stand considerably higher than it 
does near the stream. Where cemented layers (PL VI, B) have been 
found local water pockets commonly occur in depressions in the upper 
surface (fig. 8), a fact also true to a less extent of the clay layers. 



42 UNDEKGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

Because of the ease with which the water drains from the gravels 
wells must generally be sunk to the level of the stream in the adjacent 
valleys before they reach supplies (fig. 8, <?). A few wells draw sup- 
plies from pockets in the surface of the cement or ironstone layers 
(fig. 8, <2), but many fail to strike such pockets (fig. 8, &), and others 
penetrate too far and lose all supplies (fig. 8, d). Clay or till layers 
collect the water in a similar way and some of them afford supplies 
to wells. 



The principal source of the water of the loess is rainfall, and the 
water of the loess of the flat upland crests is derived solely from this 
source. On the hillsides and benches, however, especially where the 
loess rests directly on the rock, some water doubtless percolates 
laterally into it from the rocks against which it rests. 

The water occupies the pores of the silt itself, there being no joints 
or other openings. Owing to the fineness of the silt the water ordi- 
narily does not readily drain away, but is held in the material, espe- 
cially where it rests on rock or other relatively impervious substance. 
Where the loess is thin and is underlain by porous beds it generally 
contains no water. Where it is thick it commonly yields moderate 
supplies of water to shallow wells, especially where it rests on an im- 
pervious substratum of rock or clay, but, except near the Ohio, it is 
generally only a few feet thick and wells go through it into the 
underlying materials. It is not a satisfactory source of water in 
southwestern Ohio, but in a few places it furnishes enough for stock. 

MORAINAL DRIFT. 

The moraines are commonly the highest deposits in the region 
and hence are fed almost entirely by rainfall. Where they are 
banked against the valley sides, however, considerable water may 
enter them from the rock or drift in which the valley is cut. 

The moraines are commonly open and porous and the water drains 
out from them very readily, little usually remaining above the im- 
pervious till sheet or rock on which they rest. Where till is present, 
however, in the body of the moraine, the water may be held in local 
layers or pockets considerably above the base and in a few places 
may be confined under artesian pressure. 

Because of the free drainage few shallow wells obtain water from 
the moraines, although some find a little on top of or within the clay 
or till layers or at the contact of the main till sheet below. Com- 
monly, however, the wells have to penetrate the underlying till to a 
considerable depth before getting adequate supplies. 



WATEK-BEAKING FORMATIONS. 43 



TILL. 



As the till for the most part occupies the highest levels, it derives 
most of its water directly from rainfall, few rocks being in a position 
to yield water to it, but some of the till that lies in old buried valleys 
doubtless derives water from the rocks. The contact of the 
" Niagara " and underlying " Clinton " limestone is everywhere a 
strong spring horizon and considerable water must pass into the 
drift where it covers the contact. 

The clayey portion of the till, like practically all other fine ma- 
terial, undoubtedly contains considerable water in its pores. In 
fact, the larger part of its water is so held. It includes, however, 
many gravel or sand layers, due either to water action contempo- 
raneous with the ice or to the subsequent removal of the fine silt 
which filled the spaces between the pebbles of gravelly till layers. 
The openings so formed are practically everywhere saturated with 
water, as are the small more or less tubular openings found in the 
clay itself. Both the gravel layers and the tubular passages in 
general have a distinct slope, and where the point of emergence is 
at some distance or the passage of the water is obstructed in any 
way considerable artesian pressure may be developed. 

The water movement through the till is very slow, owing to the 
friction, and drainage takes place only with difficulty. As a result 
the water level stands very high, in many places within a few feet 
of the surface, especially where this is unbroken by near-by valleys. 
Even on narrow ridges much water is retained by the more clayey 
types of till. 

The waters in the more clayey portions of the till are given up 
with difficulty, although enough will usually seep into a dug well 
to supply household demands. For stock, however, it is often neces- 
sary to go to considerable depth. To supply a driven or drilled well, 
a gravelly or sandy layer or a definite bed of sand or gravel must 
be tapped. Where the drift is deep such a layer can usually be 
found, especially over a buried valley, and in some places, as in the 
vicinity of Brookfield, flowing wells may be obtained. In general 
it may be said that there are few districts where the till is 30 feet or 
more thick where water can not be obtained in amounts ample for 
domestic and farm purposes. The great difficulty in such deposits 
is that it is frequently too easy to get water, especially in wet seasons. 
Many diggers stop at 10 or 12 feet and then see their wells fail in 
the first dry season, when a 25 to 40 foot well would have carried 
them through any ordinary period of drought. 



OLD GRAVELS. 



The waters of these old sands and gravels are nearly all derived 
from the overlying loess and till, which in turn are fed mainly by 



44 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

rainfall. Possibly a small amount may come from the rocks where 
the materials lie against the higher crests. 

The water occurs in the pores of the sands and gravels and is 
not under pressure, for the beds, though overlain by relatively im- 
pervious till, are too flat for the development of artesian head. 

The materials are everywhere reached by shallow wells, which 
generally obtain sufficient supplies for domestic uses within 15 feet 
of the surface. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

" NIAGARA " LIMESTONE.^ 

At a few localities, as at Limestone City, southwest of Spring- 
field, the " Niagara " limestone lies very near the surface and may 
absorb considerable water directly from the rainfall. Throughout 
the greater part of the area, however, the " Niagara '' is overlain by 
thick deposits of drift. On the uplands this drift is mainly till, but 
in the valleys much of it is stratified. The till is the main source 
of supply, being saturated with water (p. 43), which it constantly 
feeds to the underlying limestone. Little water probably enters the 
rock from the valley drift, as the movement is normally toward 
and not away from the valley. 

The limestone, because of its general granular and open character, 
is commonly very soluble and permits the ready formation of water 
passages, especially in the weathered portion near the surface, where 
it is in some places almost honeycombed with openings (PI. VI, A). 
Considerable water passes along the joints, which locally become en- 
larged into open passages (PL V, ^, p. 36), and much flows along the 
bedding planes. The water generally works its way downward to 
the base of the formation, where it collects along the contact with 
the underlying more insoluble " Clinton " limestone, and passes lat- 
erally toward the outcrop of the beds in the valleys or elsewhere. 
A similar concentration also occurs along a number of the shale 
layers in the limestone. 

Usually, if there is a considerable thickness of the limestone and 
the boring is not too near an outcropping edge from which the water 
can readily drain, a well will procure water if carried to one of the 
shale layers or to the base of the limestone, where, as pointed out 
above, the water has a tendency to collect. In many places, however, 
it will not be necessary to go to this depth, wells generally procur- 
ing supplies from the upper weathered portion wherever there is 
any considerable coating of till to serve as a feeder. Some of the 
deep wells also obtain water from isolated joints, bedding planes, 

1 See footnote, p. 22. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 259 PLATE VI 




A. LARGE SOLUTION OPENING IN NIAGARA LIMESTONE. 

Due to enlargement of bedding plane. Openings of this type afford innportant 
supplies to wells. 




jB. CEMENT-ROCK LAYER IN TERRACE GRAVEL. 

Such layers nnay collect water and afford supplies to wells. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 259 PLATE VII 




A. NIAGARA LIMESTONE. 

Showing development of partings capable of carrying water in upper portion due 
to weathering, while lower, unweathered portion rennains dense and massive. 




B. CLINTON LIMESTONE. 

Showing cliff character of outcrop and spring formed by waters collecting on an upper impervious layer. 



WATEE-BEARING FORMATIONS. 45 

and solution passages at levels intermediate between the top and bot- 
tom layers, but such openings are comparatively few in number and 
are often missed. In general, the " Niagara " limestone is a fairly 
reliable water bearer where it forms the bedrock and is overlain 
by till. 

" CLINTON " limestone/ 

The water of the " Clinton " limestone is derived mainly from 
the " Niagara " limestone, which overlies it in most localities and 
which conducts the water downward to it through joints and solu- 
tion passages (p. 44). In some places near the outcropping edges of 
the formation the " Niagara " is absent and the saturated till rests 
directly upon the surface of the " Clinton," acting as an efficient 
feeder. The uncovered outcrops occur mainly in vertical bluffs, into 
which no rain can penetrate, but some doubtless directly enters the 
limestone where it is only thinly covered by soil, as it may be locally 
for some distance immediately back from the bluffs (PL VII, B). 

The " Clinton " limestone usually contains some water in solution 
passages or in enlarged joint or bedding planes, especially in its 
basal portion. The value of the " Clinton " as a water bed depends 
chiefly on its action in collecting water from the overlying " Niagara " 
and conducting it along the contact to the nearest outcrop, where it 
emerges as springs (PL VII, B). So numerous are the springs 
at this contact that in many places they serve to show the position 
of the beds, it being not uncommon to see a line of seeps encircling 
a hillside at the " Clinton " horizon, even where the rock itself is 
covered with a considerable thickness of drift. In fact, the " Niag- 
ara " and " Clinton " contact is the chief spring horizon in the region. 

The " Clinton " limestone, through the springs to which it gives 
rise, furnishes abundant supplies to many farms and even to some 
towns, and where it lies within the reach of surface weathering it 
may yield supplies to numerous shallow wells. Wells also encounter 
water passages within the rock itself, and especially at its base, 
obtaining from it a considerable supply. 

RICHMOND AND MAYSVILLE FORMATIONS. 

Over most of their extent in southwestern Ohio the Richmond and 
Maysville formations are covered with thick deposits of drift, con- 
sisting of till in the uplands and stratified gravel in the valleys. 
The till, which is generally saturated in its lower portion, is their 
principal water feeder, little entering them from the valley deposits, 
toward rather than away from which the ground water is moving. 
Considerable water also enters these formations from the loess in 

1 See footnote, p. 22. "^ 



46 UNDERGEOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

the areas beyond the till boundary (PI. II), and small amounts are 
derived directly from the rainfall on the bare exposures on some of 
the hillsides. Where the beds are overlain by the " Clinton " lime- 
stone the water generally enters at their outcropping edges, seeping 
down from the overlying till. Little, if any, water probably enters 
through the " Clinton," except possibly where the limestone is cut 
by joints. 

The water occurs in the Kichmond, and Maysville formations in 
several ways. Some doubtless percolates along the partings between 
the numerous laminse of shale, some occurs in joints, and some appears 
along the bedding planes, marking the contact of limestone and shale 
layers. The water passing along this contact follows the top of 
the insoluble shale and gradually dissolves ramifying passages in 
the under surface of the overlying limestone. (See PL V, B^ p. 36.) 
The size of the passages is generally limited by the thickness of the 
limestone beds, which is commonly from 1 to 10 inches (PL VIII, 5), 
and also by the extent of the soluble layers, many of which are lenses 
inclosed above and below by shale or by layers grading laterally into 
shale. For these reasons water passages are neither numerous nor 
large. 

As the Eichmond and Maysville formations consist of alternate 
layers of shale and limestone, and as the shale readily crumbles on 
exposure and the limestone is dissolved by percolating waters, the 
beds disintegrate rapidly under the action of the weather, forming 
loose, porous masses which, under certain conditions, yield to open 
wells supplies sufficient for ordinary domestic and farm uses, espe- 
cially on the broad flat crests, where the disintegrated rock is covered 
by 10 or 15 feet of loess and till. On the hillsides many wells fail 
to get satisfactory supplies because of the ease with which the water 
drains from the loose rock. Many wells sunk where the rock is very 
near the surface or on top of the sharp-crested ridges are likewise 
unsuccessful. 

Most of the deeper wells, which penetrate below the weathered 
portion of the rock, obtain very small supplies and many fail entirely. 
The water of some is brackish from salt which it has dissolved during 
its slow circulation through the rock. A few wells obtain moderate 
supplies. The difference in the yield from well to well is due to 
differences in the size and distribution of the solution openings. A 
few wells encounter such openings and get supplies, but most of 
the wells fail to find them. 

EDEN AND UTICA SHALES. 

The disintegrated portion of the Eden shale derives most of its 
water directly or indirectly from rainfalls, the indirect supply pass- 
ing through talus which has slipped down from overlying rocks to 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 259 PLATE VIII 




A. WELL PROTECTED BY CEMENT CURB AND PLATFORM. 




B. RICHMOND AND MAYSVILLE FORMATIONS. 



Showing alternations of shale and limestone. The close spacing of the shale prevents the formation 
of large solution passages. 



WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 47 

cover the outcrop of the shale. Where the shale lies beneath other 
rocks the water may reach it through joints connecting with the sur- 
face or with higher water-bearing beds, or it may penetrate along 
bedding partings or other openings. Besides the water in the dis- 
integrated and weathered outcrops, the Eden and Utica doubtless 
carry small amounts in shaly partings or joints. Water also pene- 
trates along the more soluble limestone layers but usually does not 
reach very far from the outcrop. 

Except in their disintegrated superjficial portion practically no sup- 
plies can be obtained from the Eden and Utica shales, the small 
amounts they contain being so held that practically none is given up 
to wells. Few if any drilled wells in these rocks yield supplies in 
southwestern Ohio. 

POINT PLEASANT FORMATION. 

The Point Pleasant formation outcrops in southwestern Ohio only 
along the banks of Ohio River, where it is generally covered with 
clayey or sandy silts, and it is entirely submerged at times of high 
water. In general (see p. 33), the movement of ground water, like 
the movement of surface waters, is toward and not aAvay from the 
streams, and during normal stages of the river little or no water is 
absorbed by the rocks from the stream. During sudden floods, how- 
ever, the river rises more rapidly than the ground water and then the 
river water doubtless backs up into the openings in the rock. 

The Point Pleasant formation, or its equivalent, although out- 
cropping in southwestern. Ohio only along the river, comes to the 
surface farther south in Kentuck}^, where it doubtless absorbs con- 
siderable quantities of water, a part of which may even reach the 
Ohio. Small amounts also probably reach it through joints in the 
overlying rocks. 

The water occurs mainty in meandering passages dissolved out of 
the limestone layers along their contact with impervious shaly beds. 
These passages commonly form a network, although some larger 
isolated passages occur. As the Kentucky outcrop is considerably 
higher than that in the Ohio Valley, the water may be under pres- 
sure sufficient to lift it considerably above the level at which it is 
encountered. Small amounts of water may also occur in joints. 

Owing to the facts that the Point Pleasant is the country rock only 
in the Ohio Valley, and that even there it is overlain by flood-plain 
deposits carrying much larger quantities of water, it is seldom looked 
to as a source of water supply in southwestern Ohio, except where, as 
at Cincinnati, the demands are such as to necessitate the utilization 
of every possible source. Moreover, although it contains considerable 
quantities in the aggregate, the distribution of water in it is not only 
irregular and uncertain but is likely to be brackish, especially at 



48 UNDEEGKOUND WATEES OF SOUTH WESTEEN OHIO. 

a distance from the river. For these reasons and because of its con- 
siderable depth beneath the uplands this formation is not a promising 
source of supply. 

" BIRDSEYE " LIMESTONE. 

The " Birdseye " limestone outcrops in north-central Kentucky in 
the valley of Kentucky River and other streams 60 to 90 miles south 
of Cincinnati. Though exposed only in the valley bottoms, it prob- 
ably absorbs considerable water, which penetrates downward to the 
north alon^ the more soluble layers of the limestone. More or less 
water also probably reaches the rock through joints connecting with 
the surface or overlying water beds. 

The water seems to occur mainly along open passages dissolved in 
the more soluble portions of the limestone or along joint or bedding 
planes. As there are few shale partings to limit the size of the open- 
ings, many of them are several inches or more in diameter ; they are 
often recognized in drilling by the " dropping of the drill." Some 
of these passages have been encountered in central Ohio as much as 
1,000 feet below the surface, and fragments showing solution action 
have been brought up, indicating a rather free circulation at some 
time in the past. 

Most wells penetrating the " Birdseye " limestone to the bottom 
find water that is under considerable pressure and that rises somewhat 
when reached. Unfortunately, however, it is not only exceedingly 
hard but is generally more or less salty and is unfit for drinking or 
for boiler or industrial uses. 

ST. PETER SANDSTONE. 

It is believed that a large part of the abundant supply carried 
by the St. Peter sandstone has been derived from its Wisconsin 
outcrop, inasmuch as the head and volume is far greater than would 
be expected if the water were fed through the overlying " Birdseye " 
limestone. 

The water occurs in the pores of the rock, occupying spaces that 
were either never filled by the lime cement or that were formed by 
the subsequent solution of the lime. These must be rather large, as 
sufficient head is transmitted from the outcrop, 350 miles away and 
approximately 850 feet in elevation, to lift the water to about 600 
feet at Cincinnati, a very moderate loss considering the distance. 
The rock is not everywhere saturated, however, and wells must pene- 
trate it for some 300 feet to obtain the best supplies. 

Abundant water is generally obtained from the St. Peter sandstone 
when encountered by wells, and flows are obtained when the altitude 
is not over 600 feet above sea level. The many flowing wells at 
Cinciiinati obtain their water from this formation. The main supply 



PUBLIC WATEE SUPPLIES. 49 

is found about 300 feet below the top of the bed, or 1,200 to 1,300 feet 
below the surface at Cincinnati, and the flows are not materially 
increased by going deeper. (See PI. IV, p. 30.) 

CAMERIAN AND OEDOVICIAN DOLOMITE. 

The Cambrian and Ordovician dolomite in Ohio is dense and not 
very soluble and probably permits little if any water to penetrate it 
from its outcrop. Where opportunities occur, however, water doubt- 
less penetrates it from the overlying saturated St. Peter sandstone 
or from other sandstones which may be below it. Water, if it 
occurs, will probably be found in solution passages representing 
enlarged joints or bedding planes. Although the Moerlein well 
penetrated it for 1,000 feet the dolomite gave no material addition 
to the supplies obtained from the St. Peter sandstone, and there is 
no reason to think that it will yield any usable supplies in south- 
western Ohio. 

SUMMARY or AVAILABLE WATER. 

Southwestern Ohio is particularly unfortunate as regards rock 
waters, good water-bearing formations being absent. The " Niagara " 
and " Clinton," as has been seen, yield moderate supplies to relatively 
shallow wells; the Richmond and Maysville supplies are uncertain; 
practically no water at all is obtained from the Eden shale, and 
only small amounts from the Point Pleasant formation ; the " Birds- 
eye" limestone and St. Peter sandstone yield saline or sulphur 
water, and the underlying beds within reach of the drill appear to 
carry no water whatever. 

In the drift, however, especially in the northern half of the area, 
the region has a source of supply that is ample for all domestic and 
farm uses, and except along the Ohio, the alluvial gravels of the 
valleys afford abundant water for public supplies and for manufac- 
turing purposes. 

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. 

The public water supplies in southwestern Ohio are derived from 
streams, artificial ponds, springs, and wells. Stream water in its 
raw or unfiltered state is used only where^ as at Cincinnati, the de- 
mand is too great to be supplied from any other source. Artificial 
ponds are seldom used as sources of supply in the Ohio Valley, as 
in most places more and better water can be obtained from Avells. 
Springs furnish supplies for several towns and would doubtless be 
more generally utilized if they were more widely distributed, but 
they have origin mainly in a single geologic formation — the '' Clin- 
49130°— wsp 259—12 4 



50 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

ton " limestone. Wells are by far the most important sources in the 
district, 90 per cent of the towns being so supplied. Most of them 
are in valleys and draw their supplies from the alluvium, but some 
are on the till uplands. The distribution of the public water supplies 
when the field work was done is indicated on Plate IV (p. 30). 

The following table summarizes the principal public water supplies 
of southwestern Ohio in 1906, giving the ownership, source, number, 
diameter, depth, and head of wells, the system of distribution, services 
or taps, fire hydrants, daily consumption, domestic and fire pressure, 
and other data. Further particulars concerning many of the supplies 
are given in connection with the town notes, to which references are 
given in the table. Analyses of a considerable number of the waters 
will be found in the tables of analyses on pages 198 to 207. 



PUBLIC WATEK SUPPLIES. 



51 






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UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 






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PUBLIC WATEK SUPPLIES. 



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UNDERGKOUND WATEES OP SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 





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REPORTS AND MAPS. 55 

USE OF REPORTS AND MAPS. 

Determination of surface deposits. — Over the greater part of 
southwestern Ohio the unconsolidated surface deposits are more 
valuable as water-bearing beds than are the underlying rock forma- 
tions and it is therefore important that their nature at any given 
point should be readily ascertainable. Their character at the larger 
cities and towns may be determined at a glance from Plate II, which 
shows the distribution of the glacial or surface deposits of the region. 
At smaller towns not shown on the map the nature of the surface 
materials can be determined from the table showing underground- 
water conditions given for each county (see county descriptions). 
Places away from a town or village may be approximately located 
on the map (PI. II), and the surface formation readily determined. 

Determination of country rock. — Like the unconsolidated or sur- 
face deposits, the country rock or bedrock immediately underlying 
any of the larger cities and towns can be determined directly from 
the geologic map (PL I), which shows the distribution of the rock 
formations beneath the surface deposits. Likewise, the rock forma- 
tions beneath the smaller villages may be determined from the tables 
in the county description or from the map. 

Best source of supply. — Although it is a common belief that good 
supplies can always be obtained by going " deep enough," this is not 
necessarily true. In some localities the deep supplies are the best ; in 
others the shallower waters are preferable ; and in still others no great 
difference exists between the two. To ascertain which is the best 
supply at a given town or village, the table of underground- water 
conditions in the county descriptions should be consulted. These 
will show the relative amounts of the supplies of the surface deposits 
and of tte surface rocks and indicate the best of the rock sources and 
its probable supply. If the point at which the supply is desired is 
not in a town or village it should be located on the map of glacial 
or surface deposits (PI. II) and on the geologic map (PI. I), as 
already explained. The nature of the surface deposits and under- 
lying rock being thus determined, the relative water-bearing capaci- 
ties can be found by consulting the general table of rock forma- 
tions (pp. 22-23) and the descriptions of surface deposits and rocks 
(pp. 23-30). 

Thichness of surface deposits. — Many factors affecting the success 
of wells hinge on the thickness of the surface deposits. Some forma- 
tions, like the till, which when thick are strong water bearers, are of 
little value when thin; hence the thickness of the deposit becomes a 
matter of great importance. Again, the cost of drilling and the 
length of casing required is materially affected by the relative 
amounts of surface and rock formations to be penetrated. 



56 UNDEKGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

To determine the thickness of the surface deposits or the depth to 
rock, at a given city or village, reference should be made to the tables 
of underground-water conditions (see county descriptions), which 
give the exact depth where this has been disclosed by wells and the 
estimated depth where the actual depth is unknown. The thickness 
of the surface deposits outside the cities and villages may be found 
by locating the point on the map showing the thickness of the surface 
deposits (PL III). 

Depth to water in the St. Peter sandstone. — For some uses, such, 
for instance, as cooling, volume of water is principally desired and 
quality is of minor importance. To obtain a supply for this use wells 
may be sunk to the St. Peter sandstone, whose water, though of little 
value if quality alone is considered, is cold and abundant. Too few 
wells have been sunk to the formation to permit accurate determina- 
tion of its depth in this region. Fortunately, however, during the 
oil and gas boom 25 to 30 years ago many wells were sunk to the 
" Birdseye " limestone, and it has been possible, by means of contours 
on the artesian-water map (PL IV, p. 30), to fix the elevation w^ith 
reference to sea level of that limestone throughout the area. To 
determine the depth to the " Birdseye " at any given point the eleva- 
tion of the rock contour should be subtracted from the elevation 
indicated by the surface contour, the position of the rock contour 
above or below sea level as indicated by the plus or minus sign being 
considered. To find the depth to the water-bearing bed in the St. 
Peter add 700 feet (the approximate distance of the principal water 
bed of the St. Peter below the top of the " Birdseye ") to the figure 
already obtained; the result will be the approximate total depth to 
the main supply in the St. Peter. 

Flowing wells. — A few wells in the higher formations flow, but 
there is no general artesian bed in southwestern Ohio aboV^ the St. 
Peter sandstone which carries water that is under considerable head. 
Although this sandstone lies far below sea level, even at Cincinnati, 
its water will rise to 590 feet above the sea if penetrated by wells and 
will flow wherever the surface elevation is less than 590 feet, except 
where, as at Cincinnati, its head has been reduced by the drilling of 
numerous deep Vv^ells. To determine whether or not a flow may be 
expected it is, in general, simply necessary to find whether the well 
mouth is above or below the 590-foot level. This may be determined 
from the artesian- water map (PL IV, p. 30), on which the area below 
this level is indicated. 

Water-bearing capacity of formations. — The character of each of 
the rock formations and their water supplies are concisely described 
in the generalized section of rock formations on pages 22-23 and are 
described in detail on pages 28-31. 



ADAMS COUNTY ( WESTERN HALF). 57 

Distribution of surface deposits and rock formations. — The general 
distribution of the rock formations is shown on the geologic map 
(PL I), and the distribution of the surface deposits is shown on Plate 
II. Further details of the distribution will be found in the county 
descriptions. 

Quality of water in particular deposits and formations — The qual- 
ity of the underground waters in southwestern Ohio is set forth in 
Table 2 (p. 208), in which the analyses are classified according to 
their occurrence in the several surface deposits and rock formations. 

UNDERGROUND WATER BY COUNTIES. 

ADAMS COUNTY (WESTERN HALF). 

By M. L. Fuller. 

In the field investigation for this report the work in Adams County 
was confined mainly to the western half, or to that part lying west 
of a north-south line drawn through a point about 2 miles east of 
West Union, and the following descriptions are limited to this area. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

Adams County, like other counties similarly situated, is marked 
along Ohio Kiver and its tributaries by a rather rough topography, 
crests standing 400 to 500 feet above the river, alternating with val- 
leys or ravines of equal depth. Farther back from the river the 
streams have not cut so deeply, and the uplands are gently rolling or 
even flat. Even where the stream cutting is deepest the crests 
between the streams, although narrow, are generally flat. Along 
the Ohio the thin mantle of yellowish silt or loess somewhat softens 
the surface relief, and in the northwestern part of the county the 
drift, though very thin, helps to make the surface still flatter. The 
elevation of the uplands ranges between 950 and 1,000 feet. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

The water-bearing formations include the alluvium, the loess, and 
the pebbly clay or till, among the unconsolidated deposits, and the 
" Niagara " and " Clinton " limestones, the Kichmond and Maysville 
formations, and the Eden shale among the harder rocks. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 
ALLTJVIUM. 

The most extensive alluvial deposits, those along the Ohio Valley, 
include not only the recently deposited materials of the present 
stream but also much gravelly outwash brought down by the glaciers 



58 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

which formerly occupied the region to the north. Although of di- 
verse origin, the materials differ little in character and are not readily 
separated even on the ground. The alluvial deposits consist of silts, 
sands, and gravels, the latter two predominating in general, but in- 
cluding clays of considerable thickness at some localities. The gen- 
eral arrangement seems to be as follows: (1) A surface layer of 
loamy sand or sandy clay over the flood plain, (2) 10 feet or more of 
clay with some very fine sand, and (3) alternating layers of sand, 
gravel, or clay to a depth of 50 to 100 feet or more. 

Along the smaller streams the alluvium is thinner and even more 
varied in composition, ranging from fine silts in the flat, shallow val- 
leys on the upland plateaus to coarse gravel in the ravines. 

The water supplies of the silty alluvium are small and uncertain, 
and in many of the flat upland valleys this material is therefore not 
available as a source of water. The gravels of the ravines will almost 
always yield water where they are 10 feet or more in thickness, pro- 
vided the valleys do not slope so steeply that little water is retained. 
In the more extensive deposits, such as those along the Ohio, al- 
though certain layers, like the clay beds, may be destitute of avail- 
able water, there are nearly always beds of gravel or sand within 
moderate depths which will yield abundant supplies. 

LOESS. 

The loess is a yellowish, more or less clayey silt, forming a mantle 
over the rocks of the uplands near the Ohio Eiver. It is usually very 
thin, though locally reaching several feet in thickness. In Adams 
County it may furnish small supplies of water to dug wells, but is 
generally too thin to be of importance except as a feeder to collect 
and supply waters to the underlying rocks. 



The yellowish or bluish, more or less pebbly, clay known as till is 
found only near the northwest corner of Adams County, and even 
here it has a thickness at the most of only a few feet. In the coun- 
ties to the north it is an important water bearer, but in Adams 
County it is of value only as a feeder to the underlying rock. In 
conjunction with the disintegrated underlying rock it affords in some 
localities a source of supply to shallow dug w^ells. 

BOCK FORMATIONS. 

" NIAGARA" LIMESTONE. 

The " Niagara " limestone may he roughly divided into a lime- 
stone bed a few feet thick at the base, an overlying shaly bed about 
100 feet thick, and an upper limestone about 90 feet thick. It forms 



ADAMS COUNTY (WESTEEN HALF). 59 

the upland levels between all the streams in the western part of 
Adams County, but is not found in the valleys, the streams having 
cut through it and the underlying " Clinton " into the Richmond 
formation. 

Wells obtain more or less water throughout the thick upper lime- 
stone layer, but the principal source is at the bottom of this layer, 
along the contact with the underlying shale bed of the same forma- 
tion. This contact, as elsewhere, is marked by a conspicuous line of 
springs. In places some water is afforded by the thin limestone at 
the base, but this bed is of less importance as a water bearer than 
either the shale contact above or the " Clinton "-Richmond contact 
below. 

" CLINTON " LIMESTONE. 

The " Clinton " limestone in Adams County is a semicrystalline 
pinkish or reddish limestone locally changing to an impure iron ore, 
especially along the Highland County boundary. It appears to have 
a thickness of 40 to 50 feet and is an upland formation, outcropping 
along the valleys just below the " Niagara " and at some of the lower 
spots on the general uplands. 

The " Clinton " carries considerable water throughout its extent 
and is the source of many springs which emerge principally from the 
basal layers along the contact with the upper shaly beds of the under- 
lying Richmond formation. Where not covered by the " Niagara," 
it commonly affords supplies to shallow wells, but where the " Niag- 
ara " is present most wells stop at the top of the 100-foot shale bed 
in that formation. 

EICHMOND AND MAYSVILLE FORMATIONS. 

Although 300 feet or more of the Richmond and Maysville forma- 
tions is exposed in the county, most of the thickness is in the steep 
bluffs of the Ohio and its tributaries, only relatively small areas of 
the upland surface in the western and southwestern parts of the 
county being underlain by these formations. The top of the Rich- 
mond is marked by a 25-foot bed of blue and reddish shale, below 
which layers of limestone and shale alternate down to the river level. 
A zone in which shale commonlj^ predominates occurs at the contact 
of the Richmond and the underlying Maysville, but in general the 
two formations show little difference in character and are best 
grouped together with respect to water supply. The line of sepa- 
ration would fall midway up the bluffs of the valley walls. 

On the flat uplands in the western and southwestern parts of the 
county and to a certain extent on the more gentle valley slopes of 
some of the streams in the northern district shallow open wells ob- 
tain fair supplies of water from the Richmond. On the steeper slopes 
it may be necessary for wells to go down 40 or 60 feet to procure 



60 UNDEKGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

adequate supplies. In the valleys the overlying alluvium affords 
better supplies than the rock. Drilled wells, although they may find 
some water, lack storage capacity and many fail to yield adequate 
supplies. 

EDEN SHALE. 

The Eden shale consists of bluish to grayish shales, with local 
thin layers of limestone. It underlies the Maysville formation and 
outcrops in the lower part of the Ohio bluffs at the extreme south- 
west corner of the county. The formation is about 250 feet thick, 
but only a small part of this thickness is exposed in Adams County. 
It contains practically no available water, and there is great diffi- 
culty in obtaining from it the supplies necessary for domestic use, 
even in dug wells. This absence of water is due in part to the 
compactness of the shale and the general absence of porous or soluble 
layers and in part to the poor catchment conditions, its outcrop on 
steep hillsides allowing the water to drain from it readily without 
absorption. 

SPRINGS. 

The Adams County Mineral Springs, also known as the Arcadia 
Springs, are in eastern Adams County and, although occurring out- 
side the immediate area investigated, merit consideration because 
of their interest and importance. The springs issue in masonry basins 
at the base of high hills bordering a small valley, the water coming 
from a blue slaty shale which is believed to represent the Ohio 
shale (Devonian). The volume of each of the two principal springs 
is small but is constant throughout the year, supplying enough for 
all the guests at the resort. The temperature on September 13, 1906, 
was about 58° F. The water, as shown by the analysis (pp. 198-199), 
is high in sulphates and contains free sulphuric acid. Kusty-looking 
growths or deposits can be seen about the springs, which, with the 
hotel, are owned by S. R. Grimes. 

NOTES BY TOWNS. 

WEST UNION.i 

The town of West Union is situated on a high plateau underlain 
by " Niagara " limestone. Most of its open wells enter the rock at 
4 to 6 feet and penetrate it from 22 to 35 feet to procure their sup- 
plies. At 40 to 45 feet they enter the thick shale bed forming the 
lower part of the " Niagara," but obtain no water from it. They 
appear not to reach the " Clinton." 

Wells sunk in the Richmond and Maysville formations in the val- 
leys rarely obtain much water. A strong spring, yielding about 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



BKOWN COUNTY. 



61 



10 gallons a. minute, occurs on the pike one- fourth mile north of the 
courthouse, the water issuing from a vertical joint in the limestone. 
An analysis will be found in the table, pages 198-199. 



WATER PROSPECTS. 



The following table indicates the general underground-water con- 
ditions and water prospects at each of the more important localities 
in the western part of Adams County : 

Under grotmd-water conditions in Adams County. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town, 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water supply. 


Benton ville 


Loess and 

soil. 
Till 

do.. . 


Feet. 
20 

20 
20 
10 

8 

14 
130+ 

20 
Deep.. 




"Niagara".... 

do 

.do 


"Clinton".... 

do 

.do 


Usually plenty. 

Do. 
Do. 


Cherry Fork 

Eckmansville 






...do 

.do. ... 




do 


.....do 


Do. 


Fairview 


Plenty.... 


Richmond 

and Mays- 

ville. 
"Clinton".... 
Richmond 

and Mays- 

ville. 
"Niagara".... 
Eden 


Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

"Clinton".... 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

"Clinton".... 

Point Pleas- 
ant. 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

"Clinton".... 

do .... 


Small. 


Harshasville 


...do 

Alluvium . 

Till 

Alluvium . 

Till 

Residual 

soil. 
do.... 


Usually plenty. 
Small. 

Usually plenty. 
Small. 


Manchester 

Seaman . . 


Plenty.... 


Stephens 




TranquUity 

West Union 

Wheat 


20 

4 




Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

"Niagara" — 

.. .do 


Do. 


Moderate. . 


Usually plenty. 
Do. 


Winchester 

WrightsvUle 


Till 

Alluvium . 


20 
64+ 


'p'lenty!!!.' 


do 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 


do 

Eden 


Do. 

Small. 









BROWN COUNTY. 

By M. L. Fuller. 



SURFACE FEATURES. 

Near the Ohio and its larger tributaries much of the surface of 
Brown County is decidedly rough, owing to the deep valleys and 
ravines cut by the streams. In the northern part, however, it is 
essentially a plateau 950 to 975 feet above sea level, but even there 
it is cut by a few deep valleys. Plateau remnants in the shape of 
flat-crested ridges appear between the streams in the southern half 
of the county, their average elevation being between 900 and 950 feet. 
The plateau surface in the north is rendered still more flat by a 
smooth sheet of till. 



62 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

The water-bearing formations of Brown County include among the 
surface deposits alluvium, terrace gravels, loess, and till, and among 
the rock formation the " Niagara," " Clinton," Richmond, and Mays- 
ville formations, and the Eden shale. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 
ALLUVIUM. 

The principal deposits of alluvium in Brown County are along 
Ohio River, where they are commonly 100 to 150 feet thick and one- 
half mile to a mile or more wide. Smaller, but still fairly extensive 
deposits occur in the larger tributaries of the Ohio, and small accu- 
mulations are found in the ravines entering the streams mentioned. 

The alluvial deposits of the Ohio consist of loamy sand or sandy 
clay at the surface, in many places grading downward into clay 
deposits more than 10 feet thick. Below the clay porous gravels or 
sands are commonly found in beds of considerable thickness, many 
of them alternating with clayey beds. The alluvium in the larger 
tributary valleys is similar, in a general way, to that in the Ohio 
Valley, but much of that deposited by the rapidly flowing streams in 
the ravines is very coarse and gravelly. Locally, thin tills may be 
included in the alluvium. 

An abundant supply of water can usually be obtained from the 
gravel beds underlying the clays in the Ohio Valley and from the 
sandy and gravelly beds in the valleys of the tributaries and in 
certain of the ravines. 

TERRACE GRAVELS. 

Terraces of gravel, marking a stage of the Ohio when it flowed at 
a level higher than at present, occur at numerous points along the 
valley. Owing to their situation water entering them is quickly 
drained away to the river or into the underlying formations, and 
wells penetrating them must commonly go down nearly or quite to 
the river level to obtain supplies. 



Along the crests of the bluffs facing the Ohio and for some dis- 
tance inland the surface is covered by a few feet of the yellowish to 
white, somewhat clayey silt known as loess. Although capable of 
holding water this deposit is usually so thin that it is not a good 
source of supply. Wells pass through it into the underlying till or 
rock within a few feet of the surface. 



BKOWN COUN^TY. 63* 



TILL. 



The yellowish or bluish pebbly clay or till covers the entire county 
except the southeast corner. The thickness varies from 10 to 20 
feet in the northern part of the county to the vanishing point along 
the southern edge of the drift, which appears to extend a little north 
of east from Ohio Eiver near Higginsport through Cedar Point, 
Red Oak, and Decatur. 

Owing to the thinness of the drift it is much less important as a 
water-bearing formation in Brown County than in the counties to 
the north and west. It helps, however, to collect and hold the 
water and gradually feeds it to the underlying rocks. Together 
with the loess and the disintegrated rock due to surface weathering, 
it locally affords to shallow wells supplies that are very fair but that 
are much less likely to be permanent than where the drift is deeper. 



ROCK FORMATIONS. 

NIAGARA " LIME,STONE. 



The " Niagara " limestone, which is so important as a water- 
bearing bed to the east, barely touches the eastern boundary of Brown 
County, in which it furnishes little or no water. 

" CLINTON " LIMESTONE. 

The " Clinton " limestone outcrops in the extreme eastern part of 
the county near the Adams County line, being found just west of 
the " Niagara " limestone outcrop. As elsewhere in southwestern 
Ohio a large number of springs emerge near its base and it supplies 
a few shallow wells, but its area in the county is so small that it is 
of little importance as a water-bearing bed. 

RICHMOND AND MAYSVILLE FORMATIONS. 

The Eichmond and Maysville formations constitute the upland 
surface over almost the entire area of Brown County and form the 
upper part of the bluffs bordering the streams. In its upper few feet 
the Richmond is shaly, but not far below the top it exhibits the 
usual alternation of thin layers of limestone and shale. The Rich- 
mond is considerably thinner here than at many other points. The 
Maysville, into which it grades downward, is A^ery similar in com- 
position. Shale predominates near the contact. 

The Richmond and Maysville formations contain considerable 
water, although, owing to the large amount of shale present, their 
water-bearing passages are neither large nor extensive. Shallow 
wells, especially where loess or drift coverings serve as feeders, yield 



64 UNDEKGKOUND WATEKS OF SOUTHWESTEEN OHIO. 

fair supplies, but few drilled wells procure water except in small 
quantities. 

EDEN SHALE. 

The Eden shale consists of bluish to grayish shales, weathering 
yellow or brownish and containing some thin limestones, but few or 
no sandy layers. The total thickness of the formation is about 250 
feet, nearly all of which is exposed in Brown County. The bed out- 
crops almost entirely in the bluffs bordering the Ohio and its tribu- 
taries, none of it being found on the upland flats. 

Owing to the absence of porous sandy layers and of persistent 
limestone beds there is little opportunity for the circulation of water, 
so that the formation almost never yields supplies of any consequence, 
except to shallow wells at the surface, where it has been broken up 
and loosened by the action of the weather. No drilled wells are 
known to procure water in this formation. 

NOTES BY TOWNS. 
GEORGETOWN.! 

The location of Georgetown on the upland plateau, the thinness 
of the drift, and the absence of alluvium or of any good water-bear- 
ing rock formations have made it impracticable to obtain a public 
supply from wells. A dam has, however, been constructed to im- 
pound surface waters on a small basin, and in the summer of 1906 
a pumping plant was about to be erected. 

RIPLEY.i 

Eipley, in 1906, drew its public supply from four wells, two pene- 
trating 100 feet of gravel and two striking the limestones of the Point 
Pleasant formation 68 feet below low water of the Ohio and pene- 
trating them for 40 feet. Additional data will be found in the table, 
page 51. 

SARDINIA.i 

Sardinia, situated on the plateau, has some exceptionally strong 
shallow wells, the public well opposite Stephan Bros.' store, although 
only 11 feet deep, has been known to water 1,000 head of stock in a 
day without lowering the supply. An analysis of the water, which 
is derived from gravel, is given on pages 198-199, 

WATER PROSPECTS. 

The water prospects and general underground-water conditions in 
the several towns and villages of Brown County are indicated in the 
following table: 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



BEOWN COUNTY. 
Underground water conditions in Broivn County. 



65 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water supply. 






Feet. 




Eden.'. 


Point Pleas- 
ant. 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
viUe. 
do 


Small. 




Till 

...do 


10 

25+ 
15+ 
35 


Plenty. . 

...do 

...do 


Richmond 
and Mays- 
viUe. 

do 


Do. 


Bardwell 


Do, 


Bernard 


do 


do 


do 


Do 


Biehn 


...do 


do 


do 

Point Pleas- 
ant. 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

do 


Do. 


Bondes Ferry 


Alluvium 




Eden 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

do 


Do 


Browntown 


Till 

...do 


45+ 

15 
25 

12 

12 
15 
9 
20 
35 


Plenty.. 


Do. 


Carlisle 


Do. 


Center Point 


Alluvium . 

Till 

...do 




. .do 


Richmond, 
Maysv i 1 1 e, 
and Eden. 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 
.. ..do 


Do. 


Centerville . 


Fair 

...do 


do 

do 


Do 




Do. 


Crosstown 


.do 


do 


do 


Do. 


Decatur 


Till or 

Till 

...do 

Resid u a 1 
soil or 
loess. 

Till 

..do 


Moder . . 


do 


.. .do 


Do. 


Desoto . . 




do 


do 


Do. 


Eastwood 

Ellsberry 




do 

do 


do 

do 


Do. 
Do. 


Fayetteville 


20 
15 
20 
40 

20 

15 
20 
15 


Small... 


do 

do . ... 


do 

do 

do 


Do. 




Do. 


Ferristown 


do 




do 


Do 




...do 




"Clinton".... 

R ichmond 
and Mays- 
viUe. 
do 


"Clinton," 
Richmond, 
and Mays- 
ville. 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
viUe. 
do 




Fivemile 


...do 




Small. 


Georgetown 


do . . 


Plenty 


Do 


Greenbush 


...do 




do 


do 


Do, 


Hammersville 


do... 




do 


do 


Do 


Hestoria 


Alluvium . 




Eden 


Point Pleas- 
ant. 

R ichmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

Point Pleas- 
ant. 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

Point Pleas- 
ant. 

R ichmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

"Clinton".... 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 
do 


Do. 


Hiett 


Res idual 
soil and 
loess. 

Alluvium . 

Till 

Alluvium . 
TiU 

do 






R ichmond 

and May5- 
ville. 
Eden 


Do 


Higginsport 


90+ 
20 

18 
18 

14 
20 

30 
50 


Plenty.. 


Do, 


Kirbysville 


Richmond 
and Mays- 
viUe. 

Eden 


Do. 


Levanna 


Plenty.. 
Fair 

Plenty.. 


Do 


Locust Ridge 


Richmond 

and Mays- 

ville. 
"Niagara" — 
Richmond 

and Mays- 

ville. 
do 


Do. 


Macon . . . 


Usually plenty. 


Maple 


...do 


Milltown 


...do 




Do. 


Mount Grab... 


...do 

Residual 

soil or 

loess. 

Till 

...do 


Plenty.. 


do 


do 


Do. 


Neel 


do 


do 


Do. 


New Harmony 


30+ 

13 

15 


Plenty.. 
Fair... 


do 

do ... 


do 

do 


Do 


New Hope 


Do. 


Prall 

Red Oak 


...do 

Residual 

soil or 

loess. 
Alluvium . 


Small... 


do 

do 


do 

do 


Do. 
Do 


Ripley 






Eden 


Point Pleas- 
ant. 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
viUe. 


Do. 


Russellville 


Till 


20 


Plenty . . 


Richmond 

and Mays- 
viUe. 


Do 







49130°— wsp 259— li 



66 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO.' 

Underground water conditions in Brown County — Continued. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water supply. 


St. Martins 


Till 

...do 


Feet 
30+ 

30 
15 


M der- 
ate. 

Plenty 


R ichmond 
and Mays- 
viUe. 
do 


Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 
do 


Usually plenty. 
Do. 


Sardinia . 


Skiffsville 


...do 




do 


do 


Do. 


Stickaway 


R e sidual 
soil or 
loess. 

Till 

do . 




do 


do 


Do. 




15 
12 
30 




do 

do 


do 

do 


Do. 


Sunshine 


Do. 


Surry ville 


...do 




do 


do 

do 


Do. 


Taylorsville 


R e sidual 
soil or 
loess. 

Till 

...do 




do 


Do. 




25 
20 
16 
25+ 




do 

do 


do 

do 

do 


Do. 


Vera Cruz 


Do. 


Wallsburg 


..do . 


Fair 


. . do 


Do. 


Whiteoak 


...do 




do 


do 


Do. 















BUTLER COUNTY. 

By F. G. Clapp. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

The upland surface of Butler County forms a plateau which has 
a maximum altitude of 850 to a little over 900 feet above sea level. 
Across the uplands the broad, flat surface and even sky line are 
very noticeable, but in the lowlands the plateau character of the 
county is not apparent, because the surface has been eroded and cut 
into by the streams. The larger valleys are broad and deep and 
generally extend several hundred feet below the surface of the 
uplands. 

The principal stream, Miami River, flows southwestward across 
the county from the northeast corner, near Middletown, to Venice, 
at an elevation of 500 to 600 feet, about 300 feet below the level of 
the surrounding hills. Its valley ranges in width from 1 to 3 miles 
and consists of a broad flood plain and bordering terraces. Several 
broad valleys at elevations of 550 to 650 feet, carved by Miami River 
and its tributaries, are not now occupied by any large stream. The 
largest of these abandoned valleys extends southeastward from Ham- 
ilton and is traversed by the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. 
Louis Railway and the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway. In 
places there are enlargements of the main valley, which consist of 
local basin-like valleys 2 to 4 miles in diameter. The tributary valleys 
are of all sizes ; in width they range from a few hundred feet to over 
a mile, and in depth they descend from a few feet below the plateau 
surface on the uplands to the level of Miami River. The slopes 
along the main valleys are generally steep and in places form pre- 



BUTLER COUNTY. 67 

cipitous bluffs, but back on the uplands they are moderate and grade 
into the gentle undulating surface. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

ALLUVIUM. 

As would be expected from the unusual width of the main valleys, 
deposits of alluvium are extensive in Butler County. Along the side 
valleys they range in width from only a few hundred feet to a mile 
or more, but along the main Miami Valley they are 1 to 2 miles 
broad. On Indian Creek, Fourmile Creek, and Sevenmile Creek 
they range from a quarter of a mile to a mile in width. In most of 
the valleys the depth of the alluvial deposits is not known, for in 
their centers few wells are sunk to bedrock. Wells at Hamilton and 
Coke Otto are 50 to 100 feet deep and do not reach rock, the average 
depth of the alluvium in the center of the valley being probably 
nearly 200 feet. In the broad abandoned valley southeast of Hamil- 
ton the depth may be 50 or 100 feet more on account of the greater 
elevation of the deposits. 

The deposits classed as alluvium consist of silt, sand, gravel, and 
a few layers of clay and hardpan (a thin deposit of pebbly clay or 
till). The alluvial deposits are generally finer and more silty in the 
upper few feet than in the deeper beds, because they consist of the 
finer silty materials deposited by overflows of recent streams flowing 
at a gentle grade. 

In the alluvial deposits water lies a few feet below the surface, the 
exact depth depending on the proximity to and elevation above the 
streams, the configuration of the surface, and other conditions. The 
finer portions of the alluvium contain little water because of their 
generally impervious nature. In the greater part of it, however, 
water is abundant in sand and gravel at all depths from 30 feet 
downward, the coarse gravels containing the largest amounts. In 
a few localities, which can not be detected by inspection of the sur- 
face, the silty or clayey deposits continue to greater depths, making 
successful wells impossible. 

TERRACE GRAVELS. 

Accompanying the deposits of alluvium along the sides of the 
Miami Valley and extending up Indian, Fourmile, Sevenmile, and 
other large creeks are broad, low terraces, consisting of sand and 
gravel, which stand at elevations of 10 to 50 feet above the flood plain. 
In certain localities along these main valleys^ but especially along 
the Miami, flat gravel terraces a few hundred or a few thousand 



68 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

feet in extent stand 50 to 100 feet higher than the broader terraces. 
The gravels in some of these terraces are cemented and form a hard 
conglomerate, which in a few places along the sides of the valley 
breaks off in large bowlders. The water on the terraces is essentially 
the same as that on the flood plain, but it is not found so near the 
surface, for the terrace materials are more or less porous, and as they 
lie at higher elevations their water table is lower. 

TILL. 

The material known to geologists as till consists of a pebbly clay 
which for a few feet below the surface is yellowish but lower down 
is bluish gray, the change being due to the fact that near the surface 
it has been oxidized by the atmosphere. Till is found most abun- 
dantly on the uplands and occurs in the lowlands only beneath more- 
superficial deposits of alluvium and terrace gravels. In the uplands 
of the southern part and in some in the northern part of Butler 
County the till is only a few feet thick. In general, however, it thick- 
ens toward the north. In considerable areas north of Hamilton it 
forms broad, rather flat plains from a few hundred feet to half a 
mile or more in extent which are similar in surface configuration to 
the gravel terraces but differ in not having their upper surfaces at 
a definite level and in being less even. Along Fourmile Creek good 
sections of these terraces show till ranging from 10 to 50 feet in thick- 
ness, and in many places on the uplands the till is believed to be 
equally thick. On account of the abundance of morainal deposits in 
the northern part of Butler County the till is obscured and its thick- 
ness can not be determined, but it is believed to fill many abandoned 
valleys and in such places it may have a thickness of over 100 feet. 

The greater part of the till is very clayey and impervious, and for 
that reason contains relatively small amounts of water. It includes, 
however, local gravelly portions which hold some water, and even 
the clayey portions are saturated at a few feet below the surface. 
Dug wells in it obtain moderate supplies of water in a wet season, 
but after a long dry spell they are likely to give out, making it nec- 
essary, where practicable, to resort to deep rock wells. In dug wells 
in till the water generally stands 5 to 15 feet below the surface of the 
ground. Generally it is under only a slight head and rises very little 
when encountered. No flowing wells are known in the till in this 
county. 

MOEAINAL DEPOSITS. 

Morainal deposits are not so extensive in Butler County as they 
are in counties farther north. However, moraines composed of low 
knolls and ridges standing only a few feet above the surrounding 
surface cross the county in a general northeast-southwest direction. 



BUTLER COUNTY. 69 

One belt, not conspicuous on the surface, runs northeastward from 
a point near Shandon, passing just west of Hamilton. A second belt, 
broader and less definite and of somewhat greater thickness, extends 
northeastward from the vicinity of Oxford toward Preble County. 
Between these moraine belts lie many irregularly distributed deposits 
of gravel, sand, and pebbly clay which can not be definitely classified 
but which come under this type of deposit. Most of these morainal 
deposits are not shown on the maps, as they are not conspicuous on 
the surface. Of the broader and more prominent morainal deposits 
that are shown, one, touching the northeastern edge of the county, 
consists of conspicuous, well-defined undulating ridges and knolls 
of gravel. A less noticeable moraine, which forms the outer limit 
of the latest or Wisconsin ice. advance, touches the southern border of 
the county at several places. 

Owing to their general thinness, the morainal deposits in Butler 
County are not particularly important for water supplies, yielding 
only small amounts, which are found in dug wells and which vary in 
amount according to the season. The only morainal water of im- 
portance is found in the large moraine that touches the northeastern 
edge of the county, in which the supply is plentiful. In most places 
on this moraine, however, it is necessary to go to a considerable depth 
to get water. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

" NIAGARA " AND " CLINTON " LIMESTONES. 

Both the " Niagara " and " Clinton " limestones occur near the 
southern edge of Preble County, but neither of them is known posi- 
tively to extend into Butler County. They may be present east and 
west of Somerville, but if so they occur in small patches and have 
no effect on the underground water supply. 

RICHMOND AND MAYS\T:LLE FORMATIONS. 

The whole thickness of the Richmond and Maysville formations is 
exposed in Butler County, although the complete section is not ex- 
posed at any one point. These formations constitrnte the surface of 
the hard rocks throughout the county except for a few feet of the 
Eden shale, which is exposed along the Miami Valley near Venice 
and Shandon and extends northward a short distance toward Hamil- 
ton. It is possible also that a few small patches on the uplands in 
the extreme northern part of the county may consist of the " Clinton " 
and perhaps the " Niagara " limestone, but this can not be affirmed 
with certainty. 

In general the Richmond and Maysville formations dip northwest. 
They consist of gray to blue limestone layers a few inches thick, alter- 



70 UNDEEGKOUND WATEES OF SOUTHWESTEEN OHIO. 

nating with prevailingly calcareous clay shales. The best sections 
can be seen in several quarries west of Miami Eiver, between Hamil- 
ton and Coke Otto, where unfossiliferous blue shale alternates with 
crystalline and somewhat fossiliferous blue-gray limestone. The 
limestone beds are from half an inch to 6 inches thick, and the shale 
beds 1 inch to 6 inches thick. 

Owing to the thinness of the limestone beds, to the scarcity of 
solution passages, to the absence of porous layers, and to the pre- 
dominating shaly nature of the beds, the Richmond and Maysville 
formations are not strong water bearers. Where they are covered by 
a few feet of drift, as over the greater part of the uplands, the water 
held in the drift commonly penetrates downward into the upper part 
of the Richmond and yields moderate supplies to dug wells. Drilled 
wells in these formations are not very successful, as they are so small 
in diameter that they do not admit enough water. 

EDEN SHALE. 

The Eden shale consists of gray or bluish-gray shales which weather 
brownish and have a maximum thickness of about 250 feet. Only a 
few feet of the upper portion is exposed in Butler County, outcrop- 
ing along the lower Miami Valley, near the Hamilton County line, 
southwest of Hamilton, and possibly also for a short distance below 
the old gravel-filled valley southeast of Hamilton. No water is found 
in the Eden shale. 

NOTES BY TOWNS. 
COKE OTTO.i 

At Coke Otto the Hamilton Otto Coke Co. has three 6-inch driven 
wells about 65 feet deep in alluvium. The material was reported to 
be gravel. Water was obtained at a depth of about 19 feet and rises 
within about 12 feet of the surface. The maximum yield by pump- 
ing is reported as 500 gallons a minute. The water is used for 
cooling gas. The wells can be pumped continuously. The normal 
level of water, 12 feet below the surface, can be lowered by ordinary 
pumping to 20 feet from the surface. By hard pumping it will 
descend to 25 feet but can not be lowered farther. The water level 
in the well is higher when the river is higher. The water is reported 
to be suitable for drinking. (See analysis, pp. 198-199.) Other wells 
at Coke Otto which do not belong to this company are driven to a 
depth of 18 to 25 feet. The head of the water depends on the depth 
to which the well is sunk below the level of the ground water, which 
is 12 to 15 feet below the surface. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



BUTLEE COUNTY. 71 

DARRTOWN.i 

About 1^ miles southwest of Darrtown, on the flood plain of Four- 
mile Creek, the J. W. Nichols gas well was sunk several years ago to 
a depth of 2,051 feet. No reliable record of the formations passed 
through can be obtained, but it is known that gas was encountered at 
608 feet and is now used for lighting a farmhouse near by. Salt 
water was obtained at about 1,100 feet. Very briny water was found 
somewhat below 1,200 feet and at other lower depths. The water in 
the well now stands about 100 feet below the surface, and gas comes 
up through it. This well was drilled in the hope of obtaining enough 
gas to supply the village of Darrtown, but it has never been used 
for this purpose. 

HAMILTON.i 

Hamilton is one of the largest cities in the region covered by this 
report. It is situated on both sides of Miami River and lies mostly 
upon the flood plain and gravel terraces but extends as much as 100 
feet up the hills. The city is the center of a number of important 
manufacturing and other industries, and for that reason needs a 
large water supply. It has a good system of public waterworks, built 
in 1883, which supplies the greater portion of the inhabitants and 
industries. On the outskirts, however, many driven wells are sunk a 
few feet in gravel, obtaining ground-water supplies only 5 to 10 feet 
below the surface. It is recommended that where driven wells are 
used they should be sunk to somewhat greater depths, as the water 
near the surface is likely to be rather poor. 

The waterworks consist of a pumping station obtaining water from 
23 driven wells ranging from 75 to 135 feet in depth, situated on the 
flood plain at the north end of the city. The surface formation at 
that place is reported to consist of 175 feet of clean gravel, below 
which is 5 feet of blue clay resting on bedrock. The wells pass 
through some irregular pockets of sand, which contain little water. 
Owing to the fact that the wells are of various depths practically all 
the y/ater available in the area in which they are sunk can be obtained. 
The water is pumped to a 6,000,000-gallon reservoir on Wilsons Hill 
2 miles southwest of the pumping station, and 230 feet above low- 
water level in Miami River. The pumps have a capacity of 4,000,000 
gallons. The water, though very hard, is believed to be of excellent 
quality as regards organic purity, but the amount is not sufficient 
and larger pumps, more wells, and a larger reservoir are contem- 
plated. 

The Champion Coated Paper Co., whose mills are situated on the 
west side of the river at Hamilton, has 24 driven wells 6 inches in 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



72 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

diameter and 80 to 120 feet deep, in gravel, from which water is 
obtained by pumps having a reported capacity of about 6,000,000 
gallons. Ten of the wells are spaced 30 feet apart in two parallel 
rows 20 feet apart, and 10 more are similarly situated in two rows at 
right angles to the first 10. The other four wells were driven later. 
The water from these wells is mixed with river water and is used for 
cooling acid in the manufacture of paper. This plant is situated 
about half a mile southwest of the city waterworks, and the pumping 
is said to have affected the supply of the city wells. 

The Champion Coated Paper Co. also has another well, which 
was drilled for gas to a depth of 3,120 feet. It found little gas, but 
large amounts of salt water. As shown by the analysis (pp. 198-199) , 
the proportion of total solids (salt and other minerals) far exceeds 
that found in any other well Avhich has been analyzed in the region 
covered by this report. The complete record of this well is reported 
by the company, as follows : 

Record of Champion Coated Paper Co.'s deep well, at Hamilton. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Limestone and shale (little gas) 

Small flow of gas 

Salt water 

"Birdseye" limestone 

Much salt water 

St. Peter sandstone (salt water at 2,900 feet). 



Feet. 



539 
"2,' 065' 



Feet. 
510 
1,015 
1,045 
1,055 
1,075 
3,120 



The drilling of the well lasted from June 4, 1904, to January 31, 
1905. There was considerable trouble in casing and reaming, owing 
to the fact that the drill stuck several times. At 3,120 feet the well 
was abandoned and the casing taken out because the tools became fast 
and an attempt to drill around them proved unsuccessful. The casing 
ranges from 4 to 8 inches in diameter. The very strong brine was 
obtained 2,900 feet below the surface. A sample of water, which had 
been kept by the company in sealed hogsheads, was furnished to the 
Survey and analyzed by K. B. Dole and M. G. Eoberts. 

The Black-Clawson Co., the Niles Tool Works Co., the Miami 
Woolen Mills, the Hamilton Machine Tool Co., the Sterling Paper 
Co., the Becket Paper Co., and the Cincinnati Northern Traction 
Co. have driven wells ranging in depth from 40 to 200 feet, all 
obtaining water in alluvium. The water is hard but otherwise seems 
to be excellent. Some of these Hamilton wells are reported to have 
been pumped so continuously that they have drawn water away 
from other wells in the vicinity. 



BUTLEB COUNTY. 



73 



OXFORD.i 

The water for the public supply of Oxford is drawn from one dug 
well and three driven wells, situated on the flood plain of the creek, 
about a mile north of the town and 175 feet below the main street. 
The system has been in operation since 1896. In all, seven wells 
have been sunk at the pumping station. Well No. 1 was sunk to 109 
feet; at 29 feet gravel was struck, then a blue shelly material was 
penetrated, and at 109 feet '' blue rock " was reached ; all below 29 feet 
was abandoned. This is the deepest well in the group. The water 
reaches within 13 feet of the surface when it is being pumped. The 
other wells were sunk 60, 49, 22, 24, 23, and 22 feet. 

In 1887 a well was sunli by the Oxford Gas & Oil Co. on the low 
flat opposite the railroad station. The following record ^ is based 
on samples of drillings preserved at the time : 

Record of gas well, Oxford. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Drift: Sand and gravel 

Richmond and Maysville formations: 

Limestone 

Limestone and shale 

Limestone 

Limestone and shale 

Eden shale and part of Poiat Pleasant formation: Blue shale 

Point Pleasant formation: 

Soft dark limestone and shale 

Hard dark limestone 

"Birdseye" limestone: 

White to gray crystalline magnesian limestone, with a little shale 

Coarse dark-bluish or greenish limestone.. 

St. Peter sandstone: White to bluish calcareous sandstone or arenaceous limestone 
(salty water) 



Feet. 
40 

190 

18 

17 

115 

407 

3 

40 

450 

45 

40 



Feet. 



40 

230 

248 
265 
380 

787 

790 
830 

1,285 
1,330 

1,370 



This well starts 465 feet above low water in Ohio Kiver. 



SEVENMILE.i 

The village of Sevenmile, situated on a low terrace near the flood 
plain of Sevenmile Creek, is supplied by private dug and driven 
wells ranging from 40 to 60^ feet in depth. The water is obtained 
from gravel underneath hardpan. It is of very good quality except 
in a few shallow dug wells, but its level is not within 25 feet of 
the surface. The dug wells are reported to stop on top of hardpan 
and to obtain softer water than the driven w^ells which penetrate 
hardpan. They are, however, likely to dry up during the sum.mer, 
whereas the driven wells never give out. A 48-foot well in Seven- 
mile passed through 40 feet of gravel, 8 feet of stony hardpan, and 
then into gravel. Just south of the village a test hole was once sunk 
to a depth of 1,485 feet in a search for oil. No details are available. 



1 Conditions in 1906. 

2 Abbreviated from record of J. P. James, Jour, Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 10, 
pp. 73-77. Based on assumption that samples were taken at change of rock. 



1888, 



74 



UNDEEGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



TALLEWANDA SPRINGS.i 

A short distance north of College Corner, on the edge of Preble 
County, are situated the Tallewanda Springs, owned by the Joseph 
R. Peebles Sons Co., of Cincinnati. Two springs are in use, both be- 
ing situated near the base of the ravine along a small run. No rock 
IS exposed at this place and none is known by the owners, but the 
springs may issue from the " Clinton " limestone underlying the sur- 
face till. An analysis of the water is given on pages 198-199. 
The immediate surroundings of the springs are slightly wooded and 
there are cultivated fields some distance back from the run. The 
buildings are not so situated as to affect the quality of the water. 
The temperature of the water, as reported by the owners, is 48° F. 
It issues from the springs with measured volumes of 5 gallons and 
5f gallons a minute. A little more water is reported in winter than 
in the summer, but the spring is not seriousl}^ affected by dry weather. 
The water issues in small gullies 40 feet above the run and is piped 
downhill to spring houses near the base of the slope, where it is 
bottled. It is shipped to Cincinnati and some of it is carbonated. 
The "still water" retails at 10 cents a gallon. It is claimed to be 
of great medicinal value. There is a bottling house on the grounds 
in which the water stands 5 feet in depth in a cement-lined tank.. In 
addition to the two springs described, there is a third spring which 
forms a fountain. The Tallewanda Springs are named after the 
Tallewanda tribe of Indians who are said to have once encamped 
at them. 

WATER PROSPECTS. 

The prospects for obtaining water in the principal villages and 
towns in Butler County are summarized in the following table, which 
shows the nature of the surface materials and rocks and the character 
of the water supplies at each locality : 

Underground water conditions in Butler County. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formation. 


Town. 


Material. 


Average 
thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water 
supply. 


Coke Otto 




Feet. 
Deep.. 

30 

Deep.. 
...do... 
200 


Plenty.. 

...do.... 

...do 

...do 

. . .do. . . . 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 

do 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 

do 


Small. 


College Corner 


Morainal 


Do. 


Collinsville 




Do. 


Darrtown 

Hamilton 


do 

do 

do 


do 

do 

do 


do 

do 

do 


Do. 
Do. 


Lindenwold 


Deep.. 
...do... 
10 


...do..... 
...do 

Small... 

Plenty.. 


Do. 


Millville .. 


.do 


do 


do 


Do. 


Oxford 


Till 


do 

do 


do 

do 


Do. 


Reiley 




Do. 


Sevenmile 

Shandon (New 

London). 
Somerville 

Symmes Corners . 
Veniee(RossP.O.) 


do 

do 

do 

do 

do 


50 

Deep.. 

.-.do... 

...do... 
.do 


...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


do 

Eden 


do 

None 


Do. 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 

Eden 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 

None 


Do. 
DO. 











1 Conditions in 1906. 



CLAKK COUNTY. 76 

CLARK COUNTY, 

By M. L. Fuller. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of Clark County is, in the main, a flat or gently rolling 
plateau, broken by the valleys of Mad and Little Miami rivers and 
their tributaries, which have been cut from 40 to 150 feet or more 
below the upland level. The valleys vary in width from a few hun- 
dred yards to about 2 miles, and the upland areas between the main 
streams are generally from 2 to 5 miles wide. Besides the irregu- 
larities due to stream cutting, there are many irregular hills represent- 
ing morainal deposits left by the glaciers on their retreat from the 
region. Most of these hills are of no great height, but a few rise 
nearly or quite 100 feet above the surrounding territory. Though not 
forming connected ridges they fall into several general belts running 
from northeast to southwest, one lying along the eastern limits of the 
county, one east of and nearly parallel to Little Miami River, one west 
of the same stream, and one along the southeast side of Mad River. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

STJRFACE DEPOSITS. 

ALLUVIUM. 

Alluvium is strictly a stream-laid deposit. Its upper part, in 
most places, is the work of the present streams, but its lower part 
may have been deposited by older streams which flowed before 
or between the several glacial advances in the region. The larger 
part of the alluvium is naturally found in the present surface valleys, 
but gravels deposited by old streams are present in many buried 
valleys beneath the pebbly clay. Probably the most notable of 
these buried valleys is the old channel of Mad River, near Sugar 
Grove, west of Springfield. North of this point the river flows on 
a filling probably over 100 feet in thickness, but to the south, at 
Limestone City, it flows not far above bedrock in a rock-walled 
valley only a few hundred feet wide. As the rock channel should 
normally be deeper, not shallower, at the downstream point, the con- 
ditions indicate that the river is out of its old channel. Railroad 
tests near Sugar Grove disclosed a deep rock channel beneath the 
surface deposits, cutting across the neck at this point and evidently 
marking an old channel of the river.^ Another old channel, possibly 
marking a former course of the Miami, enters Clark County from 
the north w^est near New Carlisle and joins the present Mad River 
Valley a few miles to the south. Other smaller buried channels have 

lOrton, Edward, Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 1, 1873, pp. 460-461. 



76 UNDERGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

been exposed in quarry excavations near Springfield, and it is prob- 
able that buried vallej^s abound throughout the county, although, 
owing to the fewness and shallowness of the wells, they can not be 
satisfactorily traced. 

The valley deposits are not all alluvium, however, for between 
the deposition of the lower and upper portions ice advanced over 
the region, leaving sheets of pebbly clay over the old alluvium to be 
covered by later alluvium. 

The alluvium or valley deposits, although embracing much fine 
silt, include large amounts of sand and gravel, which are usually 
saturated with Avater. Wells generally obtain water at or slightly 
above the level of the rivers flowing in the valleys, but as this water is 
generally so near the surface as to be liable to pollution, it is best to 
sink wells 20 or 30 feet below stream level. Few wells located near 
the center of the valleys fail to get adequate supplies, but the de- 
posits near the borders are likely to be finer and to yield less water. 
The water is not usually under much pressure and rarely if ever flows 
at the surface. 

TILL. 

The pebbly clay or till which makes up the greater part of the 
surface deposits represents materials laid down beneath the ice 
sheets which once passed over the region and forms a mantle com- 
pletely hiding the underlying rock. Although the surface of the 
till is generally flat and featureless, its thickness varies greatly 
owing to the irregularities of the rock surface on which it rests. 
In character it is mostly a sandy or pebbly clay containing sporadic 
bowlders, but it generally includes either definite beds of sand or 
gravel or zones that are predominantly gravelly. Near the surface 
it is usually yellow or brown from weathering, but at depths of more 
than 8 or 10 feet it is generally gray or bluish. The general thick- 
ness of the deposits is indicated on Plate III (p. 26) and local details 
are given in the town descriptions. 

Although prevailingly clayey, the pebbly clay contains more or 
less gravelly hiy^ers or even beds of sand or gravel, in which water 
is usually present in abundance, standing in wet years within a few 
feet of the surface. In the flatter areas wells 25 or 30 feet in depi:h 
usually get sufficient supplies for ordinary use, and wells of 40 feet 
seldom if ever go dry. Near the borders of the deeper valleys, how- 
ever, the supplies often drain away and Avells have to be sunk con- 
siderably deeper. The water is sometimes under pressure, rising 
considerably when encountered, and flowing water may be obtained 
by wells here and there in the deeper ravines and along the base of 
the valley bluffs. 



CLAKK COUNTY. 



77 



MOBAINAL DEPOSITS. 



Although the morainal ridges consist largely of sand and gravel 
deposited by waters that emerged from the ice margin during the 
glacial retreat, they contain a greater or less admixture of the un- 
stratified pebbly clay or till. Generally, however, they are so open 
and porous that the water, instead of being retained, is drained away 
either to emerge as springs at their borders or to sink into the under- 
lying pebbly clay. For this reason wells in the moraine areas must 
usually be carried to considerable depths, generally into the till, in 
order to procure adequate supplies, the morainal deposits themselves 
containing little or no available water. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

The rock formations known to underlie Clark County are the Eich- 
mond, "Clinton," and "Niagara." Later rocks may overlie the 
" Niagara " in the northeast corner, but because of the great thick- 
ness of the drift and the absence of borings their presence has not 
been established. 



"Niagara" 
limestone ^ 



"Clinton" 
limestone 



Richmond 
formation 



|| I I ' I I I 



I .I. r~^ 



I 1 , 111 



III 



I ' I ' I ' I 



1 T 



I II Limestone 25' 



1 r 



Limestone - 



Shale : Small springs, subordinate water horizon 

Limestone 10' 

Shale : Small springs, subordinate water horizon 

Limestone 10/ 

Line of large springs, first im.portant water horizon 



Shale 25' 



Line of lai^e springs, second imporfent water horizon. 



Figure 9. — Rock water-bearing beds of Clark County. 



NIAGARA " LIMESTONE. 



The "Niagara" limestone, which is probably at least 100 feet in 
thickness, varies considerably in character in its different portions. 
Near the base of the formation, along the contact with the " Clinton " 
limestone, is about 25 feet of shaly limestone or calcareous shale, 
overlain in succession by about 8 feet of massive limestone, a thin 
parting of shale, about 15 feet of bedded limestone, know^n as the 
Springfield limestone, and about 40 feet of massive or irregularly 
bedded limestone unfit for building purjooses. The " Niagara " lime- 
stone forms the surface of the entire county, outside the limits of 
the Richmond and " Clinton " formations, with the possible exception 



78 UNDEEGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

of a small area of more recent rock in the northeast corner. Of 
the subdivisions of the limestone the uppermost, or 40- foot bed, is the 
most important, underlying by far the greater part of the county. 

The lower shaly portion of the formation carries little or no 
water, but the limestone layers abound in solution passages and joints 
(Pis. V, A; VI, ^), in many of which water occurs in abundance. 
The shales are of importance chiefly because they limit the down- 
ward penetration of the water, which collects it in the lower part of 
the overlying limestone beds, where it is available to wells or emerges 
as springs. In fact, the top of the lower shale layer is an important 
water horizon, giving rise to numerous springs, especially on the 
south side of the valley of Mad Eiver, toward which the rocks dip. 
On the north side, where the dip is away from the valley, the springs 
are fewer in number and smaller in size.^ It is to this horizon that 
the best rock wells throughout the country are sunk. Eight or ten 
feet above the lower shale and also about 20 feet above it occur thin 
shale partings, which to some extent act as barriers to the under- 
ground waters, but, although some wells get supplies from the beds 
above these layers, the amount is usually small and uncertain. To 
insure permanency the wells should be carried to the lower shale. 

" CLINTON " LIMESTONE. 

In Clark County the " Clinton " limestone is an irregularly bedded 
semicrystalline yellowish, pinkish, or reddish limestone about 25 
feet thick. Its outcrop enters the county from the west a few miles 
north of New Carlisle and follows the east side of the valley of 
Honey Creek (West Fork), bending southeastward and reaching the 
Mad Eiver valley south of Donnelsville and following it eastward 
to Snyderville. Here the outcrop crosses the river and runs south- 
ward east of Enon to the valley of Mud Run, the south side of 
which it follows to the county line east of the southwest corner. 

The " Clinton " limestone is somewhat sandy and porous in its 
lower portion and in places carries a considerable quantity of water, 
which is retained by the underlying shales arud emerges as strong 
springs all along the line of outcrop. Much of the upper part of the 
" Clinton " is in itself dense and impervious and also gives rise to 
springs at many points. The formation may be expected to yield 
satisfactory supplies to wells for a distance of several miles back 
from its outcrop and will probably afford small or moderate supplies 
over nearly the entire county. 

RICHMOND FORMATION. 

The Richmond formation, which consists of thin alternating beds 
of limestone and shales, underlies the alluvial deposits of the Mad 
River valley up to the vicinity of Snyderville, those of Mud Run 

1 Orton, Edward, Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 1, 1873, p. 466. 



CLAKK COUNTY. 79 

south of Enon, and those of the West Fork of Honey Creek north of 
New Carlisle; but in few places does it outcrop above the valley 
deposits. 

This formation doubtless contains considerable water, but as it is 
overlain either by the " Clinton " and " Niagara " limestones, both 
of which are better water bearers, or by the saturated alluvial de- 
posits of the valleys, there is little occasion to sink wells into it, and 
it need not be further considered as a source of supply. Its upper 
portion is shaly and serves as an impervious layer to prevent the 
downward passage of the waters of the " Clinton." 

NOTES BY TOWNS. 

NEW CARLISLE. 1 

A deep well bored at New Carlisle in 1887, in search of oil and gas, 
struck the white " Birdseye " limestone at 1,060 feet, or about 150 
feet below sea level. No oil or gas was found and the amount and 
character of the water were not reported. 

NORTHAMPTON.! 

A deep boring, known as the Mower well, sunk in 1887 near North- 
ampton, penetrated 93 feet of drift and 1,287 of rock, or 1,380 feet 
in all. The " Birdseye " limestone was found at 1,293 feet. No oil 
or gas was found and no record of the water conditions is available. 
Most of the water appears to have been found in the upper part of 
the rock, as the casing was set at 200 feet.^ 

SPRINGFIELD.i 

Several deep wells have been drilled at Springfield in search of oil 
and gas. One of these, sunk by J. W. Churchill for a local company 
in 1885, affords a good record of the underlying water-bearing beds. 

Record of deep well at Springfield sunk hy J. W. Churchill, 1885.^ 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



"Niagara" limestone (58 feet): 

Blue limestone 

White clay 

Shale 

"Clinton" limestone (42 feet): White limestone 

Richmond-and Maysville formations (710 feet): 

Red slate 

Shale [and Umestone] 

Shell and gritty shale 

Gray shale [and limestone] 

Light shale [and limestone] 

Eden and Utica shales (230 feet): Dark shale 

Point Pleasant formation (100 feet): 

Red sand [and shale] 

Black shale 

"Birdseye" limestone (top 190 feet below sea level). 



Feet. 

15 

3 

40 

42 

12 
226 

37 
305 
130 
230 

76 
24 



Feet. 



58 
100 



810 
1,040 



1,140 



« Orton, Edward, Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 6, 1888, p. 280. 



1 Conditions in 1906. 

2 Adapted from Orton, Edward, The Trenton limestone as a source of oil and gas in 
Ohio : Report. Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 6, 1888, p. 278. The geologic formations are 
chiefly the interpretations of the authors of this report. 



80 



UNDEKGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 




Pump-house well ^Q, 



FiGDKE 10. — Plan of infiltration galleries, public waterworks, Springfield. 



CLAKK COUNTY. 



81 



About a year later, in 1886, a well drilled by the Champion Ma- 
chine Co. to a depth of 2,400 feet or more developed the following 
strata : 

Formations in Glimwpion Machine Co.'s well, Springfield. 

Feet. 

" Birdseye " limestone 1, 200-1, 900 

St. Peter sandstone 1,900-2,000 

Cambro-Oi'dovician dolomite (light colored) 2,000-2,400 

Most of the fresh water appears to have been found in the first 
250 feet, as the first casing was carried to this depth. Many salt- 
water supplies were encountered between 1,800 and 2,000 feet, prob- 
ably mainly from the lower " Birdseye " and the St. Peter. 

A public supply was first installed in Springfield in 1881, the 
water being obtained from a filter gallery, but on the speedy failure 
of this source, a reservoir 350 feet long, 200 feet wide, and 18 feet 
deep, with a capacity of 8,000,000 gallons, was 
built just above the junction of Beaver and 
Buck creeks, and a dam was built 300 feet be- 
low the junction of the creek to back up the 
ground water beneath the reservoir. In 1894 
the combined supply of the original filter 
gallery and the reservoir, which was fed by 
seepage, having proved insufficient, an addi- 
tional gallery 200 feet long, 32 inches wide, and 
48 inches high was constructed, with laterals 20 
feet below the surface in a gravel bed under 
and between the two creeks at their junction 
(figs. 10 and 11). This leads to a covered 
pump well 30 feet in diameter and 21 feet 
deep. Connection with the old gallerv^ is also maintained (1906) 
and provision made for using creek water in case of severe fires. 
Statistical data regarding the waterworks will be found in the table 
on page 51 and an analysis of the water on pages 198-199. 

Several strong springs issue near the east end of the city park and 
are utilized for filling the large and picturesque artificial lagoons at 
this point. The water emerges from the base of the limestone cliff, in 
one place at a rate of 80 gallons and in another of 100 gallons a 
minute. No seasonal fluctuations have been observed. The water 
has a summer temperature of 52° and is rather hard. It is free from 
local pollution. Some difficulty has been experienced through the 
growth of algae in the water, but this is now prevented by the use 
of copper sulphate, or blue vitriol, at intervals of about once a month. 
An analysis of this water is given on pages 198-199. 



Feet 

Z 


° '-^-^%°' I~r"; • 'J !_!•■ 


Loam 
Clay and 
gravel 




- ?— (— - (~ - ( '^' 




14 


^■^I'Ji^^^k 


Water- 
bearing 
gravel 




l{Z(^^{Z{Ziz 






^^^^H 


Hardpan 



Figure 11. — Section of de- 
posits at infiltration 
galleries, public water- 
works, Springfield. 



49130°— wsp 259—12- 



82 UNDEEGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

WATER PROSPECTS. 

The following summary shows the character, thickness, and avail- 
able water of the surface deposits and the underlying rocks in Clark 
County : 

Underground ivater conditions in Clark County. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rocks near- 
est surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water supply. 


Beatty 


Moraine on till . . 
Till, moraine 

do 


Feet. 

12 

50+ 

1-30 

10 

12 

Deep. 

Deep. 


Plenty.. 

Moder- 
ate. 
Small . . . 


"Niagara".. 
"Helder- 

"Niagara"... 

do 


"Niagara" 

None as good as 

the till. 
"Clinton" 

"Niagara" 

"Clinton" 

None as good as 

the alluvium. 
do 




Catawba 

Clifton 


Do. 


Cold Springs 

Donnelsville . . 


Till 


Do. 


do 


Plenty 


do.. 


Plenty. 


Eagle City 


Alluvium 

do 


...do 


do 


...do.... 


Richmond .. 




Forgy . . 


Till, moraine 


do 


Richmond 

"Niagara" 

do 


Small. 


Hennessey 

Hustead 


Till 


15 
15 
80+ 
100 

0-5 
Deep. 

°"& 

60+ 

25+ 


Small... 
do 


"Niagara"., 
do . 




do 


Do. 




do 


Plenty . . 


do 


do 


Do. 


Lawrence ville 


.do 


M d er- 

ate. 
Small ,. 


do 


do.. 


Do. 


Limestone City 


. do 


do 


do 


Do. 


Midway 


Alluvium 

do 

Till 


Plenty.. 

...do.... 
Moder- 
ate. 
...do.... 
...do 


Richmond . . 

do 

"Niagara".. 

do 

do 


None as good as 
the alluvium. 

do 

"Niagara" 

do 

do 

.do 




New Carlisle 

Northhampton. . 

Pitchin 


Do. 


Moraine, till 

do 


Do. 


Plattsburg 


Do. 


Selma 


Till, alluvium... 


Plenty . 


..do. 


Do. 


Snyderville 


Till 


10 
+50 
20+ 

35+ 

60+ 

50 




"Clinton".. 
"Niagara".. 
do 

do 

do 


Richmond 

"Niagara" 

"Niagara" and 

"Clinton." 
"Niagara" 

do 


Small. 


South Charleston 
Springfield 

Spring Grove 

Vienna Cross- 


Till, moraine 

Till, alluvium... 

Till, moraine.... 

do 

do.. 


Plenty.. 
M d er- 

ate. 
Plenty. . 

...do 


Moderate. 
Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


roads. 
Villa 


do 


do 


do.. 


Do. 















CLERMONT COUNTY. 

By M. L. Fuller. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

Clermont County, like the other counties of southwestern Ohio, 
lies on a table-land or plateau, the remarkably level surface of which 
stands about 500 feet above the Ohio, or about 900 feet above sea 
level. It is bordered on the south by the deep valley of the Ohio, 
but its interior is less cut by stream valleys than that of Hamilton 
County, to the west. Its deepest cut is that made by East Fork of 
Little Miami, which is the main drainage line of the covmty. Few 
tributaries of any consequence flow directly to the Ohio, although 
many short streams, occupying deep ravines, enter it. The bluffs 
facing the Little Miami and the East Fork are less steep than those 
of the Ohio and are only about 200 feet high. A few terraces border 
the larger streams. 



CLERMONT COUNTY. 83 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

The water-bearing beds of the surface deposits inckide anuvium, 
terrace gravels, loess, and till; those of the harder rocks include 
the Richmond, Maysville, Eden, and Point Pleasant formations. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 
ALLUVIUM. 

The most extensive alluvial deposits are those bordering the Ohio 
and occupying the valley of the East Fork of the Little Miami. As 
indicated above, most of the tributaries entering the Ohio are very 
small and the streams flow on bare rocks at many places. On some 
of the larger tributaries, however, small deposits of alluvium occur. 
The alluvium of the Ohio is generally a silty loam near the sur- 
face, merging downward into more or less clayey beds or tills, which 
in turn are underlain b}^ sands and gravels. In the Little Miami 
Valley less silt is found, gravel and sand being more abundant. 

Abundant water can be obtained from the sand and gravel beds 
below the clays of the Ohio flood plain, and similar supplies are 
yielded by the alluvium of the East Fork of the Little Miami. Water 
is also generally contained in the gravelly alluvium of the smaller 
valleys, provided the slope of the stream and of its deposits is not 
too great. In general the alluvium furnishes the most abundant and 
best supplies. 

TEERACE GRAVELS. 

Small patches of terrace gravels occur at points along the Ohio and 
the Little Miami, as, for instance, at Milford. The terraces are 
generally composed in the main of gravel and sand, but locally 
certain layers have been cemented by iron oxide into the hard sand- 
stone or conglomerate, known to the inhabitants as cement rock. 
(See PI. VI, B, p. 44.) 

Owing to the gravelly nature of the terraces, water generally 
rapidly drains away or sinks into the underlying deposits, but in 
some places its downward passage is arrested by the cemented layers, 
which hold it in depressions and irregularities in their surface. (See 
fig. 8, p. 41.) It is not uncommon for wells to obtain water from 
the top of such beds, but if they do not find it they must generally 
continue to the level of the adjacent streams. 

LOESS. 

The entire surface of Clermont County, outside of the alluvial 
areas, is covered by a thin deposit of fine, more or less yellowish silt, 
which merges locally into whitish clayey deposit. The whitish clay, 



84 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

however, commonly grades downward into yellowish or bluish clay 
of the same composition. The loess is most abundant near the Ohio, 
where its thickness may reach 5 or 10 feet. North of the East Fork 
of the Little Miami, however, it is much thinner, ranging from a few 
inches to a few feet. In a few places near the edge of the bluffs, 
where it is thickest, it affords supplies to very shallow wells, but far- 
ther back from the river it is too thin and serves principally as a 
feeder to the underlying till. 

TILL. 

The till of Clermont County belongs entirely to the older drift and 
has weathered yellowish to a depth of 10 feet or more, below which 
it is compact blue clay. It contains many pebbles and a few bowl- 
ders. In some localities peaty deposits or deposits of bog-iron ore 
have been found between the blue and yellow till. Springs occur at 
this level at many points. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 
RICHMOND AND MAYSVILLE FOKMATIONS. 

The Richmond and Maysville formations consist of alternating 
layers of limestone and shale, rarely over 10 inches thick, but aggre- 
gating over 700 feet in all, of which about 600 feet is exposed in 
Clermont County. The two limestones together form the surface 
throughout the uplands of the county, the Richmond outcropping 
mainly in the northern half of the county and the Maysville in the 
southern half. 

The Richmond and Maysville formations have no porous layers or 
thick seams of soluble limestone, and although affording moderate 
supplies of water to open wells, yield but little to wells of the drilled 
type. 

EDEN SHALE. 

The Eden shale is gray and blue in color, weathering yellowish or 
olive green. It has a thickness of about 250 feet, extending from a 
little below the flood plain to a point midway up the bluffs of the 
Ohio. Its outcrop extends up the Little Miami almost to the northern 
edge of the county and up the East Fork nearly to the western edge. 

The Eden shale, owing to its outcrop on steep bluffs where the 
conditions of catchment are unfavorable and also to its clayey and 
impervious character, is almost destitute of ground water except in 
its weathered upper portion. In general, wells can not expect to 
obtain supplies from it. Fortunately, however, because of the loca- 
tion of its outcrop on slopes where inhabitants are few, wells in 
this formation are seldom needed. 



CLEBMONT COUNTY. 85 



UTICA SHALE. 



A few feet of Utica shale occurs at the base of the Eden, but 
as a water bearer this formation is to all intents and purposes similar 
to the Eden and can not be looked to as a source of supply. 



POINT PLEASANT FORMATION. 



The Point Pleasant formation extends from low water up to a 
level just below the flood plain of the Ohio, its total thickness being 
about 50 feet. It consists of alternating layers of gray -bluish lime- 
stone and hard, dark-gray, compact sandy shale. Some of the lime- 
stone layers are of considerable thickness and are quarried for build- 
ing stone. 

Owing to its position beneath the flood plain of the Ohio and to 
the fact that better supplies can usually be obtained from the allu- 
vium, few wells penetrate the Point Pleasant. Those that do, com- 
monly find water in small amounts, which is likely to be brackish 
or to carry considerable sulphur. 

LOWER FORMATIONS. 

Below the Point Pleasant beds exposed at the surface, and entirely 
below the level of the river, there is 600 feet of massive grayish 
"Birdseye" limestone and 400 feet of porous St. Peter sandstone. 
Water is usually found in both of these formations, but is generally 
salty in the "Birdseye" and highly charged with both salt and 
sulphur in the St. Peter. 

NOTES BY TOWNS. 
BATAVIA.i 

The public supply of Batavia was intalled in 1900, water being 
obtained from East Branch of Little Miami River at a point 
above the village. The water is first treated with alum in sedimenta- 
tion tanks, from which it is carried by gravity through filter tanks 
provided with metal screens to a receiving or " clear-water " well, 
whence it is pumped to a cement-lined reservoir and distributed by 
gravity. The water (see analysis, p. 214) is reasonably safe after 
treatment and is to be preferred to that of the shallow wells, many 
of which are badly polluted.- 

FELICITY.i 

During the oil boom in 1887 a deep boring, said to have reached 
a depth of 1,200 to 1,400 feet, was sunk at Felicity. Salt-sulphur 

1 Conditions in 1908. 

2 For further details see Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 91, 1904, pp. 
63-65. 



86 UNDERGEOUND WATERS OP SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

water was obtained near the bottom, but no other supply of conse- 
quence was found. 

LOVELAND.i 

In 1906 a new public supply was being installed at Loveland by 
the Loveland Citizens' Electric Co., the water being obtained from a 
well 50 feet in depth sunk in the gravelly alluvium of Little Miami 
River a little above the town. The water (see pp. 200-201) is of good 
quality. It is decidedly safer than the water of the shallow wells 
in the crowded parts of town and should be entirely safe if care is 
taken to guard against local pollution. (See also p. 51.) 

MARATHON.i 

The spring of T. D. Hartman, at Marathon, which has some local 
reputation as a medicinal spring, issues with a volume of 5 or 6 gal- 
lons a minute from the drift in a small gully just below the upland 
level. The water is chalybeate and deposits some iron oxide along 
the small stream in which it flows. The statement that the waters 
are magnetic is not borne out by careful tests, and, in fact, the exist- 
ence of magnetic water, although frequently asserted, has never been 
proved at any locality in this country or any other. 

MILFORD.i 

The public supply of Milford is obtained from three wells driven 
in 1903 in the alluvium of Little Miami River just above the town. 
The wells are so situated that pollution is very improbable, and the 
public supply is to be preferred to that from private w^ells in the 
town. An analysis is given in the tables, pages 200-201, and further 
particulars of the supply will be found on page 51. 

NEW RICHMOND.i 

The wells of New Richmond, which is situated on a low terrace 
bordering the Ohio, range from 30 to 83 feet in depth, with an aver- 
age of 40 feet. The wells are mainly driven, the best being sunk to 
the level of the river, where they generally obtain a good supply of 
hard water. No rock is encountered. The water-bearing sands are 
overlain by clayey deposits and the supplies will probably remain 
safe as long as privies or cesspools are not sunk to the sand under- 
neath. 

At the base of the bluff is a well, sunk about 1887 for oil and gas, 
the depth attained being reported as about 1,400 feet. A strong flow 
of salt water was encountered near the bottom, probably from the 
St. Peter sandstone, and a slight flow continued after a lapse of 19 
years. (See analysis, pp. 200-201.) 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



CLEKMONT COUNTY. 



87 



The public supply of New Richmond is taken from Ohio River, 
the water being pumped to a settling reservoir on the bluffs for 
treatment, after which it is distributed by gravity to the town. 



WATER PROSPECTS. 



For the assistance of drillers or others seeking underground-water 
supplies the following table showing underground- water conditions 
is presented: 

Underground-water conditions in Clermont County. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest sur- 
face. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water 
supply. 


Afton 


Till 


Feet. 
15 

10 
30 
10 

Deep. 




Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 

Eden 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


Small 




do 

Alluvium, tin... 
Till 


Plenty.. 


Do. 


Baldwin 


Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

Point Pleasant 

....do 


Do. 


Bantam 


Fair 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
Eden 


Do 


Batavia 


Alluvium, tiU... 
. ...do 


Do 






do 


Do. 


Belfast 


Till 


30+ 
20 


Fair 

Plenty 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 
do . . 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 
do 


Do. 


Bethel 


do 

Alluvium 


Do 


Blairsville 




Point Pleasant 

Eden (?) 


Point Pleasant 

do 


Do. 


Blowville 


Till, alluvium... 
Till 


20 
15 




Do 


Boston 


Fair 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
Eden 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 

Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 


Do. 


Branch Hill. . 




Do. 




Till 


15 

12 

70+ 

Deep. 

20 

15 

25+ 

10 




Richmond and 
Maysville. 


Do. 


Charleston 




Plenty 




Chilo 


Alluvium 

do 

Till 


...do 


Point Pleasant 

do 


Point Pleasant 

do 


Do. 


Clermontville 


Do 


Clover 




Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
. .do 


Do. 


Graver 


do 




Do. 


Edenton 


Alluvium 

Till 


Moderate 
Fair 


do 

.. ..do 


do ... 


Do 


Elenor 


.do 


Do. 


Elston 


AUuvitun 




Eden 


Point Pleasant 

do 

Richmond and 
MaysviUe. 
do - - - 


Do. 


Epworth H'g'ts 
FeUcity 

Funston 


Till 






Eden(?) 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 


Do. 


do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 


10 

15 
15 
10 
20 
20 
10 
20 
20 

10 

15 
15 
10 
20 


Plenty-. 

Fair 

Plenty.. 

Plenty!! 


Do. 
Do. 


GlenEste 

Glenrose 

Goshen 

Guinea 

Hamlet 

HenningsHilL. 
Hillstation 


do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 




Do. 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


Till, alluvium... 
Till 




do 


Richmond, Mays- 
ville, Eden. 
Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 

do 

. ..do 


Do. 


Hulington 

Laurel 

Lerado 




do 


Do. 


do 

do 

do 

do 


Moderate 
Plenty.. 
Fair . 


do 

do 

do 

do .- 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


Locust Corner 


do 


Do. 




Plenty.. 


Eden 


Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 

do 

do 


Do. 


Manila 


Till 


20 

30 
10 
10 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 

do 

do 

Eden 


Do. 


Marathon 

May 

Merwin 


do 

do 

do . . 


Plenty.. 
Plenty!! 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


Miami ville 




Point Pleasant 

.do 


Do. 


Milford. . 


do 


Deep. 
20 

25+ 

30 

90+ 


Plenty.. 


do 


Do. 


Modest 


Till 




Ri<3hmondand 

Maysville. 
do 


Richmond and 
Mays\ille. 

do 

do 


Do. 




do 


Plenty.. 


Do. 




.do 


Small . . . 


do 


Do. 


Moscow 


Alluvium 


Plenty.. 


Point Pleasant.... 


Point Pleasai 


xt 


Do. 



88 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

Underground-tvater conditions in Clermont County — Continued. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest sur- 
face. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water 
supply. 


Mount Carmel.. 


Till 


Feet. 
15 

8 
15 
25 
10 
15 




Richmond and 
Maysville. 
do . 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


Small. 


Mount Holly 


do ... 


Plenty 


Do. 




.do 


Fair 


do 


do 


Do. 


Mount Pisgah 


do 


Moderate 
...do 


do.. . 


do . . • 


Do. 




.. .do 


do 


do 


Do. 


Mulberry 


do 


Plenty . 


do. 


do 


Do. 


Neville 






Point Pleasant 

do 


Point Pleasant 

do 


Do. 


New Palestine 


do 






Do. 


New Richmond 


. .do 


75+ 
8 

15 
10 


Plenty . . 


do 


do 


Do. 


Newtonsville 


Till 


...do 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 
do 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 
do 


Do. 


Nice 


do 


Do. 


Nichols 


Nichols 




do 


do 


Do. 


Ninemile. . . 


Alluvium 




Eden (?) 


Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


Do. 


Ninevah 


Till 


15 

20 
9 
15 

30+ 
15 

15 
20 




Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


Do. 


Obannon 


do 




Do. 


Olive Branch. . 
Owensville 


do 

do 


Moderate 


do 

do 


do 

do 


Do. 
Do. 


Perintown 


Alluvium 

Till 


Plenty.. 


Eden . 


Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 
do 


Do. 


Pinhook 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


Do. 


Pleasant Hill 


do 




Do. 


Point Isabel . 


do 




do . ... 


.do 


Do. • 


Point Pleasant. 




Fair 


Point Pleasant 

Eden .... 


Point Pleasant 

.do 


Do. 


Rocky Ford 


do 




Do. 


Rural 


do 








do 


Do. 


Salem 


Till 


10 

10 
12 


Plenty.. 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 
do 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
.. ..do 


Do. 


Saltair 


do 


Do. 


Simpkinson 


do 


Moderate 


do 


do 


Do, 


South Milford . 


Alluvium 


Eden 


Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 

Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 

..do 


Do. 


Spann 


Till 


15 




Richmond and 

Maysville. 
Eden 


Do. 


Stone Lick 


Alluvium 




Do. 


Summerside. . . 


Till 


15 

15 

100+ 

10 

8 
20 

15 
9 




Richmond and 
Maysville. 
.do 


Do. 




do 


Moderate 
Plenty.. 
Moderate 

Fair 


Do. 


Utopia 


Alluvium 

do 


Eden 


Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


Do. 


West Woodville 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
. .do 


Do. 


Wiggonsville... 


..do 


Do. 


Williamsburg 


do 


Plenty 


do 


do 


Do. 


Willowville 


...do .. . . 




. .do 


do... 


Do. 


Withamsville 


d'^ 


Plenty 


do . . 


.do 


Do. 

















CLINTON COUNTY. 



By M. L. Fuller. 



The underground- water investigation for the present report covered 
all of Clinton County except a strip about 5 miles in width along its 
eastern border and included all the cities and villages except New 
Vienna, Memphis, Lees Creek, Sabina, and Reesville. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

Clinton County, although somewhat rougher than many of the 
other counties of southwest Ohio, consists in the main of flat upland 
plateaus standing at elevations of 950 to over 1,100 feet. In the 
southwest corner of the county, southwest of a line extending from 
the vicinity of Clarksville through Cuba and Martinsville to the 



CLINTON COUNTY. 89 

county boundary 3 or 4 miles northeast of Lynchburg, there is a 
relatively low and very flat surface commonly ranging from about 
950 to 1,025 feet in altitude and but little cut by valleys, except near 
Clarksville. Along the line mentioned, however, a scarp or bluff 
rises 50 to 100 feet above this low surface, or to heights of about 
1,000 feet above sea level. Back from the bluff the land again 
stretches northeastward as a broad flat. This flat, however, owing 
to its higher elevation, has been much cut by the streams into deep, 
sharp valleys, of which those of Todds Fork and Cowans Creek are 
the most striking, their channels being from 100 to nearly 200 feet 
below the adjacent uplands. The scarp described above lies near the 
outer limit reached by the latest or Wisconsin ice sheet, but the 
morainal deposits are not at all conspicuous and may be neglected. 
Another low but better-defined belt of morainal knolls crosses the 
county in a northwest-southeast direction midway between Wilming- 
ton and the northeast comer. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

ALLUVIUM. 

No large rivers cross Clinton County, and the valleys, being mainly 
narrow, do not contain extensive deposits of alluvium, such as char- 
acterize those of the Miami and similar streams. Of the alluvial de- 
posits, those of Todds Fork are the most important, having a breadth 
of half a mile and extending along the stream for 10 miles or more. 
Narrower deposits occur along Cowans and Little creeks. East 
Fork of Little Miami River, and other streams, but over a large part 
of the county, especially on the lower plateau to the southwest, very 
little alluvium is present. Near Clarksville, on Todds Fork,, the 
alluvium probably has a depth of 50 feet or more, but at some other 
places on this and other creeks the streams flow on or near bedrock. 
Probably many old alluvial deposits occupy buried channels beneath 
the till, as indicated by deep wells scattered among shallow ones, but 
at present they can not be satisfactorily located and traced. 

"Where the alluvium is more than a few feet thick it usually holds 
abundant water in its sand and gravel layers, which are nearly always 
to be found in the centers of the valleys. Wells reaching to or below 
stream level usually get ample supplies. In many places toward the 
edges of the valleys rock is encountered before this level is reached, 
or the deposits are found to be finer and less porous, and under either 
of these conditions the procuring of w^ater supplies is doubtful. Most 
of the alluvium of Clinton County, or at least its superficial portion, 
is later than the drift and contains few if any interbedded till sheets. 
The water rarely rises in the wells. 



90 UNDERGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



LOESS. 



South of a line extending southeastward from a point near Clarks- 
ville through Cuba and Martinsville a coating of yellow clayey loam 
known as loess, varying from a few inches to a few feet in thickness, 
forms the surface. Farther south this material is thicker and in a 
few places is a factor in the water supply. In Clinton County, how- 
ever, it is of no importance in this connection. 



TILL. 



The line from Clarksville through Cuba and Martinsville, just 
mentioned, also separates the pebbly clay or till into two parts, one 
thinner and older to the south and the other thicker and in part 
newer to the north. The thin sheet coincides in area with the lower 
plateau plain and ranges in average thickness from less than 10 feet 
along the southern border of the county to 30 feet or more along 
the Clarksville- Cuba line. Depths to rock of more than 70 feet are 
reported in some wells, but these wells appear to have been sunk in 
old buried chanels. 

Northeast of the Clarksville-Cuba line the till abruptly thickens, 
forming the bluff described (p. 89). Near the edge the rock' is usually 
100 feet or more below the surface, but it appears here and there in 
valleys, as at Ogden, Todds Fork, and west and north of Wilmington, 
and in the eastern part of the county is not generally far below the 
general surface of the upland. Both till sheets are very clayey in 
Clinton County and do not contain so many sand and gravel layers 
as in the counties to the northwest. 

Owing to the thinness of the deposit of the older till in the south- 
eastern portion of the county water is not abundant in it and in a 
large number of wells can not be obtained short of rock, especially 
at Blanchester and vicinity. Where the till is 20 feet or more thick 
wells generally get fair supplies, but in many places, owing to the 
absence of gravelly layers, drilled and driven wells are unsuccessful. 
Many open and tubular wells sunk on the uplands or bluffs near the 
deep valleys and ravines which are so numerous in the western por- 
tion of the county are likewise unsuccessful, owing to the readiness 
with which the water drains away. On the whole the till is a de- 
cidedly less satisfactory source of supply in Clinton County than in 
the counties to the north and west. 



MORAINAL DEPOSITS. 



Morainal deposits are not very extensively developed in Clinton 
County, being limited to two belts that are of no great thickness. 
As in adjoining counties, they are in general prevailingly gravelly 



CLINTON COUNTY. 91 

and readily permit the water to drain outward or to sink into under- 
lying deposits. For this reason they are of no importance as a 
source of water. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

NIAGARA LIMESTONE. 

Owing to the thickness of the drift over the region of its contact 
with the next lower formation the margin of the " Niagara " can be 
only approximately located. It probably enters the county nearly 
north of Wilmington and extends a little east of south to the county 
line between New Vienna and Lynchburg, passing east to Wilming- 
ton. The boundary is not regular, the formation extending farther 
westward in the highlands between the streams than in the valleys. 
Its lower layer, as seen resting on the " Clinton " limestone on Todds 
Fork, is a blue shale a foot or two thick, overlain by 12 to 15 feet 
of compact limestone suitable for local building purposes. Above 
this is a loose, porous limestone with many cavities. This series 
underlies the greater part of the county to the east, except at Snow 
Hill, some miles south of New Antioch, where higher and even more 
porous and friable beds are found. The total thickness of the 
" Niagara " in this county is probably not over 75 or 100 feet. 

" CLINTON " LIMESTONE. 

The " Clinton " limestone is a gray or pinkish granular limestone, 
massive or irregularly bedded, and 25 to 30 feet or more in thickness. 
Its outcrop lies just west of that of the " Niagara," and, being lower 
down, is much more irregular, following the complicated windings of 
the drainage system. It is exposed on Todds Fork at intervals from 
a point northwest of Ogden to a point north of Wilmington, here and 
there on Cowans Creek and its branches as far east as New Antioch, 
and at points a short distance northeast of Martinsville and south of 
Farmersville (PI. I) . Although its outcrops are numerous it does not 
form lines of conspicuous bluffs along the stream, as it does in cer- 
tain of the counties both to the north and south. 

The " Clinton " limestone, except in the valley bottoms, is gen- 
erally covered with a considerable thickness of drift, and in such 
situations is not commonly used as a source of supply, although it 
probably carries considerable water. Some of the deeper wells of the 
higher uplands in the vicinity of New Antioch, Martinsville, and 
Farmersville, however, possibly draw from it. Its outcrop is so 
deeply covered in Clinton County that it does not usually give rise 
to springs, as it does in counties to the north. 



92 UNDERGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



EICHMOND FORMATION. 



Much of the Richmond foraiation exposed in Clinton County is 
shaly, and varies from yellowish green to blue in color. It lies at 
an average depth of 10 to 30 feet beneath the lower plateau plain 
southwest of the Clarksville-Cuba-Martinsville Bluff, and is seen in 
the valleys of Todds Fork, Lytle and Cowans creeks, Little East 
Fork, and at places near the western edge of the county. Locally 
the stream bluffs, some of which are nearly 100 feet high, consist 
mainly of the rocks of this formation. 

The Richmond formation is not a good water bearer. Many wells, 
even of the dug type, obtain only small supplies from it, and drilled 
wells are rarely successful. Where the drift is very thin, however, 
it is the only available source, and trial wells must be sunk until one 
yielding sufficient water is found. 



DEEPER ROCKS. 

Two wells, sunk to depths of about 1,500 feet at Lynchburg, failed 
to obtain water in any amount, indicating the futility of sinking 
to the deeper beds for water. 

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS. 

In many ways the ground-water supplies of Clinton County are 
unsatisfactory. The drift carries less sand and gravel than at many 
other points, the alluvial deposits are restricted to narrow valleys, 
and the rocks, especially those of the Richmond formation, carry but 
little water. Under such conditions open wells afford the best supply. 
Drilled wells, because of their small size, not only fail to tap many of 
the small seeps, but afford no opportunity for storage. Wherever 
possible alluvium should be utilized. Next to this the drift will, in 
general, afford the best supplies, but in the area of the " Niagara " 
limestone waters can generally be obtained from the rock. No deep 
beds, affording water suitable for domestic, public, or industrial sup- 
plies, exist, and deep drilling should be avoided. 

NOTES BY TOWNS. 
BLANCHESTER.i 

The problem of water supply in Blanchester is acute, owing to the 
thinness of the drift deposits, from which at other points water is 
usually obtained in relative abundance. Not only is the drift thin, 
but the underlying Richmond formation, which is in many places 
within 10 or 15 feet of the surface, is one of the poorest water bearers 
of southwestern Ohio. Fortunately, however, the region is relatively 
flat and the underground drainage slow, so that more or less water is 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



CLINTON COUNTY. 93 

held back in the thin till and in the upper part of the rock. Drilled 
wells rarely obtain large supplies, but dug wells carried to depths of 
40 feet or more, on account of their large storage capacity, usually 
yield enough for ordinary domestic use. To insure safety from pollu- 
tion, however^ the shallow water in the drift and upper part of the 
rock should not be utilized; the well should be walled up and 
cemented from the surface to a level 3 to 5 feet below the top of the 
rock. Cisterns can be made to yield enough for ordinary demands, 
but to do this they should be not less than 10 feet in diameter and 15 
feet deep and should have absolutely tight walls. The ordinary 6 
by 10 foot cistern often fails when it is most needed because of its 
small storage capacity. Many cisterns develop cracks that permit 
leakage. This should be guarded against by frequent inspection. 

An attempt was made at Blanchester in 1896 to procure water from 
three dug wells, 50 feet in depth and 6 feet in diameter, but, as was 
to be expected from the nature of the geologic formations, the sup- 
ply was entirely inadequate for public purposes, and it was neces- 
sary to construct an artificial impounding reservoir in a shallow 
draw. The entire supply is derived from surface water collected in 
a settled and farming region and is not only offensive in odor and 
taste but unsafe to the health. Fortunately, however, no attempt 
is made to use it for domestic purposes. 

CLARKSVILLE.i 

Clarksville is located on the south side of the valley of Todds Fork, 
a part of the town being on the lower slopes. Owing to the fact that 
the stream is flowing in a comparatively recently developed valley, 
with only a thin coating of alluvium over the underlying till or 
rock surfaces, water is more difficult to obtain here than at most 
points in the larger stream valleys. Instead of finding extensive 
alluvial gravels, many of the wells penetrate blue clay or till or enter 
the scantily water-bearing Eichmond formation within a short dis- 
tance of the surface. 

The town is badly in need of a public supply to afford adequate 
fire protection and to replace the unsatisfactory wells. An inspection 
of the vicinity leads to the belief that a system of driven wells across 
the valley just above the town would yield the necessary water. 

CUBA.i 

Cuba is situated on a sloping hillside of unconsolidated material. 
Many of the houses are located on the east-west pike running parallel 
with the slope, but others are on the hillside above. All the drainage 
from the privies and sinks enters the soil and moves downward 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



94 UNDEEGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

toAvard the valley, more or less seriously contaminating the wells 
along the main street. The water of the public well at the crossroads 
in the center of the town is believed to be badly polluted. Tightly 
cemented cisterns of sufficient size to provide a supply for the whole 
year are suggested as a safe substitute for the questionable wells. 

M'KAY.i 

McKay shows somewhat exceptional underground-water condi- 
tions. The drift, although apparently more than 100 feet in depth, 
consists almost entirely of blue clay, the usual gravelly beds being 
entirely absent. Very few first-class wells are obtained either from 
the drift or from the underlying rock, although some fair dug wells 
from 12 to 25 feet in depth are found. The following is a record of 
a 175-foot well: 

Record of well at McKay. 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Drift: Blue clayey till 

"Clinton" limestone: Limestone. 
Richmond formation: 

Red shale 

Blue shale 



Feet. 
110 



Feet. 
110 
118 

125 
175 



MAHTINSVILLE.i 

The conditions in the vicinity of Martinsville are variable and un- 
certain. Near the railroad at the lower side the creamery and other 
wells get considerable water, but on the plateau on which the town 
is situated several wells have been unsuccessful, though some were 
carried to a depth of 115 feet. In general, although many shallow 
dug wells procure small supplies, Avater is notably short on the slopes 
and crest of the ridge. More water, however, is to be had on the flats 
just south of the town, few farms there having trouble with their 
supplies, which they obtain from gravelly beds in the till. In some 
places where water is scarce several wells have been connected and 
pumped by a windmill with good results. In the Martinsville region 
little is to be hoped from drilled wells in the rock, nearly all rock 
wells being either failures or only partial successes. 

NEW BURLINGTON.i 

On the bank of West Fork of Mill Creek, about half a mile south- 
east of New Burlington, a very peculiar well yields two different 
types of water from different depths. The well is dug 36 feet and 
drilled 12 feet. The rocks consist of limestone, with perhaps 30 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



CLINTON COUNTY. 95 

per cent of shale, and lie at the Kichmond-Maysville horizon. Water 
stands 8 feet below the surface. There are two pumps in the well; 
the pipe of one extends 16 feet beloAV the surface and that of the 
other 35 feet below, or within 8 inches of the bottom of the dug part 
of the well. The shorter pipe obtains fresh water and the longer one 
very strong salt water. The fresh-water bed is 8 feet below the sur- 
face ; the salt-water bed 21 feet below it. The salt water is reported 
to have been used for medicinal purposes at various times. The 
analyses of these two types of water are given on pages 200-201. 

WILMINGTON.i 

Wilmington is situated on a broad drift plain formed mainly of 
blue clay or till. Most of the people not using the public supply 
depend on shallow dug wells, although a few use dug wells as much 
as 60 feet deep, or drilled wells, some of which are reported to be 172 
feet deep. The shallower wells get water in the blue clay and the 
deeper ones from a gravel bed in or beneath the clay. It is said that 
no rock is encountered in the town, although it comes to the surface 
a short distance to the north. 

A deep well drilled in 1887 for oil and gas afforded the following 
partial record: 

Record of deep well at Wilmington, Ohio.^ 



Thick- 
Bess. 



Depth. 



Drift 

"Niagara'* limestone: Shale. 



'Clinton" limestone: 

Red rock fossil iron ore 

Limestone 

Richmond formation: 

Brown shales 

Shale 

Eden shale and Point Pleasant formation: Shale interbedded with limestones. 
"Bird's-eye" limestone. 



Feet. 

84 
4 

3 
15 

5 

850 

a 250 



Feet. 

84 



91 
106 

111 

961 

a 1,211 



o Orton, Edward, Geol. Survey, Ohio, vol. 6, 1888, p. 296. The geologic formations are the interpretations 
of the authors of this report. The thickness of the Eden shale and Point Pleasant formation is not given 
in the published record, and to complete the record the approximate thickness in the well at New Vienna 
is inserted. 

• 

Wilmington is to be regarded as fortunate in procuring a supply 
from wells in a region where neither the drift nor the rocks com- 
monly carry water in any considerable amounts. The supply is 
obtained from five deep wells owned by the Wilmingion Water & 
Light Co., sunk to a gravel below the till in the eastern part of the 
town. The water appears to be safe and is to be preferred to that 
from private wells. So far, the supply seems to be sufficient for the 
needs of the town. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



96 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



WATER PROSPECTS. 



The following table summarizes the more important facts con- 
cerning underground- water conditions at the principal villages and 
towns covered by the field work in Clinton County : 

Underground-water conditions in CUnton County. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Towns. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water supply. 


Blanchester 


Till 


Feet. 
10 

75 
100+ 

Deep. 

75 -f- 
140+ 

75 
35 

100 

58+ 

30 
100 
100+ 
100+ 

40 

10 

14 

100+ 

75 
65 + 

40 
110+ 

20 
30 
10 
20 
64 
100 

12 

75+ 

75+ 


Small... 

Plenty.. 
Small... 

...do 


Richmond 

"Clinton" (?)... 
Richmond 

do 

"Niagara" 

Richmond 

"Niagara" 

"Niagara "(?).. 

Richmond 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

"Niagara" 

Richmond 

"Clinton" (?)... 

"Niagara" 

Richmond 

"Niagara" 

Richmond 

do 

do 

"Niagara" 

do 

do 

Richmond 

do 

"Niagara" 

Richmond 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
"Clinton" (?)... 
Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 

"Clinton" 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 

"Clinton" 

"Clinton "(?)... 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

"CUnton" 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

" Clinton " (?), 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"CUnton" 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"Clinton" 

Richmond and 
MaysviUe. 

do 

do 

"CUnton" 

do 

do 


Small 


Burton ville 

Clare 


do........ 

do 


Plenty ? 
Small 


Clarksviile 

Clinton 


Alluvium mo- 
raine. 
Till 


Do. 

Usually plenty. 
Small 


Cuba 


Till, moraine.. 
Till 


Plenty.. 


Deserted Camp 
Farmers sta- 


Usually plenty. 
Plenty? 

Smal 


Moraine 

Till 




tion. 
Gurnevville 




Kingman 

Lees Creek 

Little Center... 
Lumberton . 


do 

do 

do 

do 


Small... 
Moderate 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do 


McKay 

Martinsville.... 
Melvin 


do 

Till, moraine. . 
Till. . 


Do. 

Do. 
Usually plenty. 
Small 


Midland 


do 


Moderate 




do 


Moderate. 


New Antioch 


do 




Usually plenty. 
SmaU. 


New Burling- 
ton. 


Alluvium 

Till 




Moderate 
...do 

...do 


Usually plenty. 
SmaU. 

Do. 


Oakland 

Ogden 


do 

Alluvium 

Till 




Do. 


Port William... 


do 


Usually plenty. 
Do. 
Do. 


Renville 


do 

do 

do 


" Small.'!! 
Moderate 


Sligo. . .. 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 

do 

"CUnton" 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 


SmaU. 


Westboro 

Wilmington 


do 

do 


Do. 

Usually plenty. 
Small. 


Vander v o r t s 


do 




Corner. 







DARKE COUNTY (SOUTHERN). 

By Feederick G. Clapp. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

The part of Darke County included in this report ranges in eleva- 
tion from 1,000 feet along Millers Fork and on the branch of White 
Creek to over 1,220 feet on some of the hills in the western part of 
the county. The area may be said to consist in general of three 
types of surface — (1) broad, gently undulating plains, which form 



DAKKE COUNTY. 97 

by far the greater portion of the whole ; in this type of surface hills 
over 20 feet high are rare; (2) a belt of north-south morainal hills, 
rising 100 feet or more above the surface of the clay plains and 
valleys on which they rest and crossing the western edge of the area ; 
this region is very undulating; (3) the valleys of a few small creeks, 
from a few feet to 100 feet or more below the surrounding country 
and from a few feet to one-fourth mile broad. 

Except in a few localities, rock is not exposed at the surface, but 
is buried under a few feet to nearly 300 feet of sand, gravel, and till. 
The underlying rock surface is known from well records to be very 
irregular and to bear no relation to the form of the present surface. 

WATER-BE AEING FORMATIONS. 

By M. L. Fuller. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

ALLUVIUM. 

The material classed as alluvium includes that deposited by streams 
in present or former valleys. It ranges from coarse gravel to fine 
clay and silt. The silt commonly forms the surface of the present 
flood plains of the creeks and the other deposits lie underneath. 
Alluvial deposits not only include those of the present-day streams, 
but they underlie large areas of till plains, where they help to fill 
valleys that are now deeply buried but that existed as true valleys 
before the glacial epoch. These buried alluvial deposits, which are 
generally reported by well drillers as sand or gravel, commonly 
constitute the water-bearing gravels in the regions covered by till. 
Many of them were probably laid down as outwash deposits during 
the closing part of the earlier of the two glacial stages. 

With the exception of the dug wells in till the great majority of 
wells in southern Darke County obtain their supplies in the alluvial 
sand and gravel deposits buried underneath till. The waters are 
hard but otherwise good. The till acts as a surface covering and 
prevents pollution by surface water. 

TILL. 

The material which forms the surface over most of southern Darke 
County and which makes up a large bulk of the deposits lying above 
bedrock is a hard, pebbly clay known as till. This material forms the 
greater part of the broad flats covering a large area in this county 
and is also abundant in the valleys and the areas of morainal deposits. 
From well records and from general geologic conditions it is believed 

49130°— wsp 259—12 7 



98 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

to occur, where deep, in at least two different layers, each represent- 
ing a glacial stage. 

Many cliffs along the creeks and elsewhere show the character of 
the till. It is uniformly very hard and tough and generally pebbly. 
Its normal color is blue-gray, but in its upper few feet it is every- 
where weathered to a buff". Water is not abundant in the till on 
account of its clayey and generally impervious nature, but perhaps a 
dozen wells in southern Darke County obtain small amounts from 
somewhat sandy lenses. The water in the till itself is of rather poor 
quality and is frequently contaminated by surface drainage. All 
good wells go through the till into underlying gravels or rock. 

MORAINAL DEPOSITS. 

The morainal deposits of Darke County are mostly confined to the 
portion west of New Madison. They are very hilly, are much cut up 
by ravines, and in places have what is known as the kettle-hole type 
of surface — that is, they contain small depressions without any out- 
lets. The moraines are composed largely of sand and gravel, but con- 
tain also some irregularly intermixed pebbly clay or till. In places 
large numbers of bowlders, some of them several feet in diameter, 
cover the surface. These are sometimes struck in wells and are mis- 
taken for bedrock. 

Water is generally present in morainal deposits, but the hetero- 
geneous mixture of sand, gravel, clay, and till, and the extremely 
undulating surface of the deposits make the depth to it uncertain. 
One well is said to have gone more than 200 feet before striking bed- 
rock and to have found little water. This, however, represents an 
extreme case, for plenty of good water will generally be found within 
100 feet of the surface. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

Eock outcrops in only one or two places in Darke County. Else- 
where it is buried beneath great depths of drift and is reached by 
only a moderate number of wells. So far as known the rock con- 
sists of the " Niagara " limestone from 100 to several hundred feet 
thick, underlain by the " Clinton " limestone and the Kichmond and 
Maysville formations. The " Niagara " limestone is very hard, but 
contains numerous small solution passages through which water 
circulates. These may be tapped by the drill and good wells obtained. 
Some wells fail through reaching the bottom of the limestone with- 
out striking any of these water-bearing passages, but most of those to 
the " Niagara " are successful. Many of them penetrate the rock only 
a few feet. The water is of excellent quality and not so liable to 
pollution as that in the drift. 



DAKKE COUNTY. 



99 



NOTES BY TOWNS. 
' AKCANUM.i 

The waterworks of Arcanum consist of six wells 38 to 80 feet in 
depth and 8 inches in diameter, drilled on the plain at the south- 
east corner of the village. The plant was installed in 1906. The 
wells entered rock at 36 feet, and most of the water was encountered 
within 2 feet of the top of the rock. The water rises within 10 feet 
of the surface. 

About a dozen wells have been drilled for gas at Arcanum, and 
some of these have met with success. Xo records were kept, but their 
maximum depth is believed to be about 1,200 feet. Gas was obtained 
in the " Birdseye," and the successful wells have been productive for 
15 years. Little or no salt water is reported to have been found. 

GORDON.i 

At Gordon several small flowing wells situated along a small valley 
constitute an interesting feature. The wells consist of IJ-inch pipe 
driven about 13 feet to rock. The water overflows at about a gallon 
a minute in a constant stream 2 feet above the surface. The head is 
derived from the slight rise of the surface deposits a few hundred 
feet to the east. 

WATER PROSPECTS. 

The following table shows the general underground-water condi- 
tions at each of the more important localities in southern Darke 
County : 

Underground-water conditions in southern Darke County. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rocks near- 
est surface. 


Wat^-bearing ..^.^er supply. 




Till 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


Feet. 
27-36 

92 

8-30 

28-50 

115 


Moderate . 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


"Niagara" 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


"Niagara" Usually plenty. 

and "Clin- ; 

ton." 

do Do. 

do Do. 

do Do. 

do j Do. 


Gordon 

Ithaca 

New Madison 

Savona 



1 Conditions in 1906. 



100 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

GREENE COUNTY. 

By M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface features of Greene County differ considerably in dif- 
ferent parts. East of a north-south line drawn approximately 
through the center the surface is prevailingly high and, although cut 
by many valleys, is marked by rather wide stretches of relatively flat 
uplands between the streams. West of the line are the broad, deep 
valleys of Little Miami River and Beaver Creek and the sharper but 
still deeper valleys of their tributaries. In the northwest corner is a 
considerable area belonging to the valley of Mad River. From 100 
to 200 feet above the streams are flat plateau remnants similar to 
though much smaller than those east of the Little Miami. The ele- 
vation of the valleys is usually from 800 to 850 feet, and that of the 
uplands ranges from 950 feet in the western part of the county to 
1,100 feet in the east. The larger valleys, such as those of Little 
Miami River and Beaver Creek, are broad and open, but many of their 
tributaries head iji deep, cliff-walled ravines, marked by picturesque 
waterfalls. Good examples of such ravines may be seen at Yellow 
Springs and Clifton. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

In Greene County alluvium, pebbly clay or till, and morainal ma- 
terials constitute the chief surface deposits and " Niagara," " Clin- 
ton," and '' Richmond " the chief rock formations. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 
ALLUVIUM. 

The principal area of alluvial deposits is in the Mad River valley, 
at the extreme northwest corner of the county. This valley is 2 
miles or more in width and contains many square miles of alluvium. 
In character the deposits are prevailingly gravelly, but interbedded 
with the gravels or overlying them in places, especially near the 
sides of the valley, is more or less till. In some places Imolls of till 
project through the gravel surface. The valleys of Beaver Creek 
and of Little Miami River are locally of considerable width and con- 
tain important deposits of alluvium. The alluvium on Beaver Creek 
is connected with and partakes of the character of the deposits in the 
Mad River valley, both being largely the work of earlier streams or 
of earlier stages of the same stream. The alluvium of the Little 
Miami is to a somewhat greater extent the work of the present 
stream, The valleys of the smaller streams are not generally very 



GREENE COUNTY. 101 

wide nor their deposits extensive. As in adjacent counties, consider- 
able alluvium doubtless exists in buried channels beneath the till. 
Abundant water can be procured from the alluvium at almost all 
points, but the depth to it varies considerably, according to the ele- 
vation of the surface. On the lower bottoms near the streams water is 
often found at the level of the stream at depths of 10 to 15 feet, but 
farther back, where the surface rises to low terraces, the depths to 
water are somewhat greater. The wells on some of the low swells 
and knolls, although surrounded by alluvium, are themselves in till. 
A few wells starting in alluvium encounter till a short distance below 
the surface, but the water in these is scanty, and most wells must go 
considerably deeper for their supplies. 

TILL. 

The till, which is a yellowish pebbly clay at the surface, grades 
downward into blue clay at depths of 10 to 15 feet. It forms a 
mantle over the whole surface except in the alluvium-filled valleys, 
burying the rocks to depths of a foot to 50 feet or more. The varia- 
tion in depth to rock is due mainly to the inequalities of the rock 
itself, the till surface being rather flat. The till is thinnest along 
the sides of the valleys, near which in many places the rock outcrops. 
Back from the valleys the drift gradually thickens, reaching 25 to 50 
feet on the general uplands and being thicker over buried valleys. 
At Wilberforce it measures over 75 feet and at Bowersville 50 to 75 
feet. There appear to be some sand and gravel layers in the till, but 
they are less numerous than in the counties to the northwest. 

As would be expected from the scarcity of gTavel and sand layers, 
the water supplies of the till are not so abundant as in areas where 
such layers are common. There is usually, however, enough water, 
even in the more clayey areas, for ordinary domestic and farm pur- 
poses, providing the till has a thickness of 20 feet or more. Where it 
is thinner than this the supplies are likely to be scant. This is espe- 
cially true in Cedarville and Miami townships. 

MORAINAL AND OTHER GRAVELS. 

Two north-south belts of morainal deposits occur in Greene 
County, one along the eastern boundary and another just east of 
Xenia. The drift knolls constituting these belts are not very high 
and contain more pebbly clay and less gravel than are commonly 
found in moraines. Besides the morainal drift numerous more or 
less sheetlike deposits of sand and gravel occur, representing the out- 
wash from the glacial ice during its retreat from the region and being 
in fact a glacial alluvium located on the uplands instead of the 



102 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OE SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

A' alleys. It is possible that in part at least the deposition took place 
in temporary glacial lakelets.^ 

The morainal belts, being composed either entirely of till or of a 
thin gravel spread over the siirface, do not differ greatly from the 
pebbly-clay uplands as to their water supplies. The gravels and 
sands, because of their elevated position and the readiness with which 
they are drained, are not important sources of water, it being usually 
necessary for wells to penetrate to the underlying till. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

" NIAGARA " LIMESTONE. 

The " Niagara " limestone, the highest and youngest of the rock 
formations of Greene County, forms the surface beneath the drift 
over the entire eastern half. Its western boundary enters the county 
from the north just east of Osborn, passes with some irregularities 
southward to the vicinity of Byron, and then SAvings around to the 
east and up the valleys of Little Miami River and Clark and Massie 
creeks, whence it passes southeastward just east of Xenia, leaving the 
county in the center of Csesars Creek Township. An outlier also 
appears on the highlands of southwestern Beaver Creek Township. 
In fact, the " Niagara " in Greene County is distinctly an upland 
formation. 

In character is varies considerably in the diiferent beds. At the 
base, separating it from the underlying " Clinton," is about a foot of 
blue clay. Over this comes a layer of bedded limestone, suitable for 
quarrying and as much as 10 feet in thickness. This is overlain in 
succession by 30 feet of shale and 85 feet or more of blue and drab 
massive to bedded limestone, making a total thickness of about 125 
feet.- In Cedarville and Miami townships it is very near the sur- 
face, the rocks outcropping as cliffs along many of the ravines and 
being barely covered at numerous other points, as at Yellow Springs, 
Clifton, and Cedarville. Elsewhere the drift is in many places of 
considerable thickness. 

The " Niagara " of Greene County carries considerable quantities 
of water and gives rise to a great number of springs. These emerge 
at two levels. The upper is at a thin shale parting 60 or 70 feet above 
the base of the formation and in general is less important as a spring 
horizon than the top of the shale bed 30 feet lower down, but the 
Chalybeate Spring of the Neff Grounds at Yellow Springs (PL IX, 
B)^ the most noted spring of the county and one which flows over 100 
gallons a minute, occurs at this level. The springs at the top of the 
30-foot shale bed are both numerous and copious, especially along the 
Little Miami below Clifton and on Massie Creek below Cedarville. 

lOrton, Edward, Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 2, 1874, p. 681. 
2 Idem, p. 668. 



GREENE COUNTY. 103 

The lower springs, the Arctic and Magnetic of the Neff Grounds 
(p. 107) , belong to this horizon. A few springs occur at the blue-clay 
parting between the " Niagara " and " Clinton " limestones. 

Wells sunk into the " Niagara " limestone usually get fair supplies 
if carried to the 30-foot shale bed, along the top of which the water 
collects. Some shallow w^ells get water from the upper shale part- 
ing, but the supplies are small and not permanent. 

" CLINTON " LIMESTONE. 

The " Clinton " limestone is semicrystalline, is largely pinkish or 
reddish in color, and has a thickness varying from 25 feet near Spring 
Valley to 50 feet near Yellow Springs. It is irregularly bedded and 
is prevailingly sandy near its base. Its outcrop extends along the 
western border of the " Niagara " and occurs as outliers at short 
intervals along the western border of the county south of the Mad 
Eiver valley. The outcrops in the vicinity of Mad Eiver are exten- 
sive, and others occur at many points near Xenia, on Oldtown River, 
on Massie Creek, at the head of Ludlow Creek, etc. The " Clinton " 
is marked at several points by sink holes into which a few streams 
disappear, as near the junction of the Xenia-Fairfield and Dayton- 
Yellow Springs pikes, to reappear elsewhere as large springs. 

The " Clinton " limestone carries much water in the form of under- 
ground streams occupying channels dissolved in the sandy and more 
soluble basal layers at the contact with the impervious shales of the 
underlying Richmond. Among the more important springs at this 
level are those at the head of Ludlow Creek and at Groes station. 
Most wells sunk to the same horizon would doubtless procure consid- 
erable water, but the supplies are no greater than those in the over- 
lying " Niagara," and it is therefore seldom worth while to sinli to 
the deeper bed for the supply. 

RICHMOND FORMATION. 

The Richmond formation underlies the drift and alluvium in the 
lower portions of the county, or in the area west of the outcrop of the 
" Clinton." Its upper part consists of a 25-foot bed of fine shale, 
bluish or reddish in color, lying just below the " Clinton " at Goes 
and elsewhere. Below this lie the usual alternations of thin layers 
of bluish limestone and shale, the total exposed thickness of these 
layers in the county being about 250 feet. Although it doubtless con- 
tains some water, the Richmond formation is far less important as a 
water bearer than the overlying limestones, and except where these 
beds and the water-bearing alluvium and drift are all absent, it will 
rarely be advisable to drill for water in the formation. Its chief 
importance is as an impervious bed concentrating the water in the 
overlying " Clinton." 



104 UNDEKGROUx^D WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

NOTES BY TOWNS. 
CEDARVILLE.i 

The first deep well in the vicinity of Cedarville was sunk near 
the site of thei Hager paper mill 25 years ago in search of oil and 
gas, reaching a depth of about 1,500 feet. A heavy stream of fresh 
water was encountered at about 250 feet. The well failed to obtain 
oil or gas and was later plugged at about 300 feet, and a deep-well 
pump, afterwards replaced by an air-lift system, was installed for 
raising the water for use in the manufacture of paper at the works 
of the Hager Straw Board & Paper Co. From 150 to 200 gallons 
a minute was obtained, the water standing under this draft at 75 
feet below the surface. 

In 1903 two additional 8-inch wells were sunk to a depth of 400 
feet. Water was encountered at the same depth as in the original 
well, apparently coming from the same seam, as the pumping of 
one immediately affected the level of the others, and no additional 
supply was obtained. The wells are used only in dry seasons, the 
creek furnishing the supply at other times. The well water (see 
analysis, pp. 200^201) is distinctly harder than that of the creek. The 
drill is reported to have dropped some distance when the water 
seam was encountered, apparently indicating an open channel in the 
limestone. 

The town of Cedarville is located on " Niagara " limestone, the 
rock in many places being almost at the surface. It is full of fissures, 
some of which conduct matter from privies, barns, etc., directly to 
the wells, badly contaminating some of them and increasing the 
danger of typhoid fever. 

The cost of drilling deep wells and of properly casing them pro- 
hibits their construction by private parties, and it is highlj^ desirable 
that some sort of a public supply be installed at the earliest possible 
date. The best water supplies would be those from alluvium (see 
p. 41), but, unfortunately, the creek at Cedarville flows on or near 
bedrock, and no deep deposits of alluvium occur. The next best sup- 
plies would be afforded by the gravelly or sandy layers in the pebbly 
clay or till (p. 43) , but these also are very poorly developed at Cedar- 
ville, being represented by only the few feet of soil overlying the 
bedrock. A drilled well would probably find water similar to that 
in the paper-mill well at a depth of 250 to 300 feet, but if it does not 
it will be useless to go deeper, as the underlying rocks are not water 
bearing, and some form of surface supply must be installed instead. 
If a deep well is sunk, the casing should on no account be stopped at 
the rock surface, but should be carried to not less than 150 to 200 
feet, to shut off all possibility of pollution through the crevices 
mentioned. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



GKEENE COUNTY. 105 

CLIFTON.i 

What has been said of the conditions at Cedarville applies with 
equal force at Clifton, which is similarly situated on a limestone out- 
crop. Few towns have suffered more from cholera and typhoid than 
this, some epidemics, like the cholera epidemic of 1849, sweeping the 
town with disastrous effect. Most of this could have been avoided 
if pure water had been available. 

The most promising source of water for a public supply is the thick 
clayey and gravelly deposit on which the higher part of the town is 
located. A well located 300 feet or more from any house and car- 
ried to the rock would probably obtain safe water, although several 
wells might be required to yield the necessary amount. 

GOES.i 

The " Clinton " limestone, which comes to the surface at Goes, gives 
rise to an unusually large number of fine springs on the hillsides 
above the village. Other good springs occur along the river ; in fact, 
the springs are so abundant that they form the chief water supply 
in this vicinity. One was long used by the railroad ; others supply 
the boilers, houses, and works of the Miami Powder Works; and 
many others supply private families. 

JAMESTOWN. 

A well, reported to be 1,776 feet deep and known as the " 1776 
well," was sunk in Jamestown some years ago in search of oil and 
gas. None was found, but a strong sulphosaline water, termed the 
" 1776 water," was obtained and later put on the market for medici- 
nal purposes. A partial analysis is given on pages 200-201. 

OSBORN.i 

A deep well sunk at Osbom during the oil boom 25 years ago 
reached the " Birdseye " limestone at 990 feet, or 170 feet below sea 
level. A record is given below: 

Record of deep well at Oshorn, Ohio.^ 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Drift 

Blue shale (Richmond and Maysville) 

Darker shale (Eden shale) 

Gray rock (Point Pleasant formation) 

Hard crystalline limestone ("Birdseye"). 



Feet. 

207 

500 

213 

70 



Feet. 
207 
707 
920 
990 



« Orton, Edward, Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 6, 1888, p. 290. Correlations by M. L. Fuller. 

Gas was obtained at 750 to 850 feet, but no water seams of impor- 
tance are recorded. 

The public waterworks, which were installed in 1895, are operated 
in connection with the electric-light system. The water is obtained 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



106 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

from alluvium at the north end of town at a depth of about 50 feet, 
an overlying layer of clay preventing the access of polluting matter 
to the water-bearing gravel. Other particulars will be found in the 
table on page 51. 

PAINTERSVILLE.i 

The wells near Paintersville are of interest as affording flowing 
water. The supply comes from a dark sand or gravel, locally known 
as "black " sand, occurring beneath a bed of clay at depths of 35 to 
140 feet. In about half a dozen wells the water flows freely at the 
surface, but apparently will not rise much above it. 

SPRING VALLEY.i 

A well sunk at Spring Valley during the oil boom is said to have 
reached a depth of 1,460 feet and to have obtained a large amount of 
saline water. The " Birdseye " was reached at about 850 feet, or 100 
feet below sea level. Neither oil nor gas was obtained. The principal 
seam of fresh water was found at 165 feet. The water has in late 
years been placed on the market by the Spring Valley Medicinal 
Water Co. 

WILBERFORCE.i 

Wilberforce is the site of a number of institutions of learning. The 
scattered residences depend on wells for their water, but the college 
buildings are supplied by a good-sized spring in an adjoining ravine. 
The spring is inclosed by cement walls and protected by a spring 
house, the water being pumped to the buildings on the plateau above 
by a gasoline engine. 

XENIA.i 

A number of deep wells have been drilled at or near Xenia. The 
record of one of them, drilled in 1887 by the Xenia Gas Co., is given 
below : 

Record of deep tvell at Xenia, Oliio.^ 





Thick- 
ness. 


Depth.6 


Drift: 

Clay 


Feet. 

6 

20 

35 

25 

8 

210 

325 
32 
2 
114 
160 


Feet. 
6 


Gravel 


26 


Sand 


61 




86 


Cernented sand . 


94 


Richmond formation: Light-colored shale, etc 




Maysville, Eden, and Point Pleasant formations: 

Dark shale 




Black shale . 




Shell rock 




Black shale 


1.040 


"Birdseye" limestone (penetrated) 


1,200 







° Orton, Edward, Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 6, 1888, p. 290. The identifications of geologic 
formations are by the author. 

^ The thickness of the formations above the " Birdseye," as published in the record, 
add up only to 777 feet, Indicating the presence of unrecorded strata having a thickness 
of 26.3 feet, the position of which is not known. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



GKEENE COUNTY. 107 

The record gives the depth to the top of the " Birdseye " as 1,040 
feet, which would place it about 170 feet below sea level at this point. 

The first public supply in Xenia, owned and operated by the Xenia 
Water Co., was installed in 1887, the water being obtained by im- 
pounding the run-off of several springs IJ miles north of the city. 
Some surface water also entered the reservoir. Later a large well 
was sunk through the surface coating of till into the underlying 
gravel. From this the water was conducted to a receiving well at 
the reservoir, and both reservoir and well water pumped to the 
standpipe. The springs supply about 300,000 gallons and the well 
100,000 gallons daily. 

Since 1896 six 6-inch wells, six 8-inch wells, and two 10-inch wells, 
located southwest of the city and penetrating a bed of gravel below 
the till to depths of 28 to 40 feet, have been added to the system. 
About 25,000 gallons daily is obtained from these wells in wet 
seasons. A test well sunk in the rock to 315 feet found the seams to 
be filled with clay, and the small amount of water obtained tasted 
rank and oily. Two 150-foot wells at the old station likewise proved 
to be failures. An analysis of the public supply is given in the table 
on pages 200-201. 

YELLOW SPRINGS.i 

Yellow Springs has long been noted for its mineral waters. Even 
in the time of the "mound builders" it was much frequented, as is 
attested by the mound near the Chalybeate Spring, in the Neff 
Grounds, and by the deep pits sunk in the limestone. The old trail 
between the Indian villages of the Miamis, at Oldtown and at Mad 
River, below Springfield, passed the spring and glen. Early in the 
last century the spring was selected as a site for the socialistic ex- 
periment of Robert Owen, and a building was begun, but the locality 
was soon abandoned in favor of another at New Harmony, Ind. 
For many years after the Civil War Yellow Springs was a popular 
resort, and a hotel accommodating 500 people was built here in 1870. 
In later years more northern resorts drew away most of the visitors, 
and in 1901 the hotel was demolished. At present the springs are 
developed as a recreation park (the Neff Grounds), which caters to 
those caring for the natural scenery and water rather than for more 
artificial attractions. 

The natural attractions include a wooded park, bordered by high 
limestone bluffs of " Niagara " limestone, the Chalybeate, Arctic, and 
Magnetic Springs, and a picturesque lake of 5 or 6 acres fed by 
springs. The Chalybeate (see PI. IX, ^) is the principal spring of 
the park. It issues from the "Niagara" limestone with a volume 
of about 100 gallons a minute and flows over a broad expanse of 
moss-covered tufa, plunging over the edge into the valley below 

1 Conditions in 1900. 



108 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



(PI. IX, A). The tufa mass, which is some hundreds of feet across 
and 20 feet or more thick, is not the least interesting feature of the 
park. It represents the accumulation of mineral matter brought out 
in solution by the spring in the course of centuries and deposited over 
the ground and the surface of grass, leaves, and twigs, a process 
which may still be seen in actual operation. The tufa varies con- 
siderably in composition, some parts carrying much more iron than 
others. Analyses of both the iron-bearing tufa and of the purer 
type are given below; an analysis of the water will be found on 
pages 200-201. 

Analyses of tufa at Yellow Springs, OMo.^ 



• 


Ferrugi- 
nous. 


Calcare- 
ous. 


Carbonate of calcium 


92.97 

2.42 

3.80 

.80 


97.60 


Carbonate of magnesium .... .... 


1.21 






Silica 


.60 







a Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 2, 1874, pp. 678, 692. 

Besides the deposit at the Chalybeate Spring, other accumulations 
of tufa, or '' red bank," as it is called locally, are found at other 
points in the park, especially on the east side of the lake a few hun- 
dred yards above the main spring. 

The Arctic Spring, is situated at the base of the bluff on the east 
side of the lake and has a flow of about 5 gallons a minute. The 
Magnetic Spring is in a ravine entering from the east about a quar- 
ter of a mile below the Chalybeate Spring, and has a flow of about 
15 gallons a minute. The water of the Arctic Spring is hard, but 
that of the Magnetic Spring appears to be relatively soft. Neither 
carries any iron or any notable amount of gas. 

WATER PROSPECTS. 



The table below gives summaries of the underground-water con- 
ditions at the principal villages and towns of Greene County : 

Underground water conditions in Greene County. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water supply. 


Alpha 

Bellbrook 

Bowersville 


Alluvium 

do 

Till, moraine. . 
Till 


Feet. 
35-1- 

30-h 

60 

30 


Plenty.. 
...do 


Richmond 

do 

"Niagara" 

Richmond .. 


Richmond and 

Ma7SvUle. 

do 

"Clinton" 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 


Small. 

Do. 
Usually plenty. 




Fair 


Small." 









;. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 259 PLATE IX 





SPRINGS ON NEFF GROUNDS, YELLOW SPRINGS, GREENE COUNTY. 

A, Spring falling over tufa deposit; B, Chalybeate Spring ennerging from "Niagara" limestone above a 

shale parting. 



HAMILTON COUNTY. 
Underground water conditions in Greene County — Continued. 



109 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water supply. 


Cedars^ille 


Till .... 


Feet. 

5 
5-20 

40+ 

25 
75 
25 

70 
35 

60 

30-1- 

40 


Fair 

Moder- 
ate. 
Fair 


"Niagara" 

do 


"Clinton" 

do 


Usually plenty. 
Do, 


Clifton 


Till, alluvium. 

Alluvium un- 
der till. 
Till . .. 


Fairfield 

Ferrv . . 


Richmond 

do 

"Niagara" 

"Clinton", Rich- 
mond. 

"Niagara" 

Richmond 

"Clinton" or 

"Niagara." 
Richmond 

"Niagara" 

do 

Richmond 

do . . 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 

"Clinton" 

"Clinton,"Rich- 
mond, Mays- 
ville. 

"Clinton" 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"Clinton" 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 
"Clinton" 

do 

Richmond and 
Mavsville. 
do 


Small. 
Do. 


Gladstone 


Till, moraine. . 
Till, alluvium. 

Till, moraine. . 
Till 


Usually plenty. 
Moderate. 


Goes 


Plenty.. 


Grape Grove... 
Hawkers 


Usuallv plentv. 
Small.' 




Hopkinsville. . . 
Huflfeysville.... 
Jamestown. . 


do 

Alluvium 

Till 




Usually plenty. 
Small. 

Usually plenty. 
Do. 


Plenty.. 

Moder- 
ate. 


New Jasper .... 


do 


Oldtown 


Alluvium, till 


Small, 


shorn 


Alluvium 

Till 

Terrace gravel. 

Alluvium, etc. 

Alluvium 

Sandy till, 

moraine. 
Till, moraine. . 

Till 


30+ 
140+ 
50+ 

30+ 
30+ 
80 

50 

5-15 

90+ 


Plenty.. 


Do. 


Painterville 

Roxanna 

Spring Valley.. 

Trebeins 

Wllberforce 

Xenia 


...do 

Moder- 
ate. 
Variable 
Plenty.. 

...do 

Fair 

Moder- 
ate. 
...do 


"Niagara" 

Richmond 

do 

do 

"Clinton" (?).... 

Richmond 

"Niagara' 

Richmond 


"Clinton" 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 

do 

"Clinton" 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 
"Clinton" 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 


Usually plenty. 
Small. 

Do. 
Do. 

Usually plenty. 

Small. 


Yellow Springs. 
Zimmerman.... 


Usually plenty. 
Small. 


Alluvium, till. 



HAMILTON COUNTY. 

By M. L. Fuller. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

Hamilton County is essentially a plateau, consisting of rather flat 
uplands lying about 500 feet above the Ohio or a little more than 900 
feet above sea level. The surface, however, is not continuous but is 
broken by many valleys, among which are Miami, Little Miami, Mill 
Creek, Whitewater, and the streamless valleys connecting the Mill 
Creek and Little Miami valleys north of Cincinnati and the White- 
water and Miami valleys near the Butler County line, in the south- 
western part of the county. 

Many interesting features are presented by the valleys of Hamil- 
ton County. The main bottoms, where they join the Ohio, have an 
elevation of about 475 feet, agreeing approximately with that of the 
Ohio flats, but the tributary valleys, 10 or 15 miles back from the 
Ohio, generally stand at least 100 feet higher. The width of the 
valleys bears little or no relation to the size of the streams now occu- 



110 UNDEEGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

pying them. For instance, the valley of the Little Miami is de- 
cidedly wider than that of the Ohio, and the valley from the Little 
Miami to Mill Creek, which contains no stream, is fully as wide as 
that of the Little Miami. Mill Creek valley near its mouth is only 
about half a mile in width, but above St. Bernard, where it is joined 
by a valley connecting with the Little Miami, it is a mile or two 
wide. Again, the Miami in Hamilton County flows in a narrow val- 
ley, in many places less than half a mile wide, although a broad 
channel 2 miles or more in width but unoccupied by any continuous 
stream leads westward from it just south of the Butler County line, 
connecting Avith the Whitewater Valley at the western edge of the 
county and extending southward to the Ohio near the Indiana State 
line. 

These anomalous features are the result of drainage changes which 
have taken place in late geologic time. Originally the Ohio, instead 
of flowing past Cincinnati, turned northward just east of that city, 
flowing up the valley now occupied by the Little Miami to Newton, 
thence past Madison, Norwood, etc., by way of the old valley to Mill 
Creek. Here, turning north, it flowed past Elmwood, Wyoming, 
Lockwood, etc., to the Miami south of Hamilton, where it appears 
to have turned westward and southwestward, entering the present 
^¥hitewater Valley near the county line and flowing southward to 
join its present channel just west of the Indiana line. At this time, 
there being no east-west channel past Cincinnati, the Licking prob- 
ably flowed northward across the site of Cincinnati and through the 
valley now occupied by Mill Creek, joining the main Ohio at St. 
Bernard. As the streams continued to flow in the channels indi- 
cated their beds were gradually built up by sand, gravel, etc., brought 
down from higher points on the stream, until a level of 600 to 640 
feet above the sea was reached. The streams flowing at this level 
found divides across which they could cut and seek shorter courses 
than those in which they were then flowing, and, on the uplift of the 
land, the present channels were begun and have since been gradually 
deepened. These old valleys are of great importance with reference 
to underground water. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

The water-bearing beds in the surface materials include alluvium, 
terrace gravels, loess, till, and morainal deposits. The rock forma- 
tions outcropping at the surface are the Eichmond, Maysville, Eden, 
Utica, and Point Pleasant. Beneath these, but not outcropping, 
are the "Birdseye" limestone, St. Peter sandstone, Cambro-Ordo- 
vician dolomite, and Cambrian sandstone. 



HAMILTON COUNTY. Ill 



SURFACE DEPOSITS. 
ALLUVIUM, 



The alluvium occurs mainly in the larger valleys, where it varies 
greatly in extent, character, and depth. 

In the Ohio Yalley the alluvium, or those beds which constitute 
the flood plains of the river, occurs mainly as narrow strips rang- 
ing from a quarter to half a mile in width. To a depth of 6 or 8 
feet the material is usually a sandy loam. Beneath this occurs com- 
monly 30 feet or more of alternating beds of clay and silty sands 
and gravels, below which lies a thick bed of clay, including some 
ocher layers and sporadic tree stumps and peaty material. Beneath 
this again, just above low-water level, is a considerable bed of clean 
gravel. From low-water level to bedrock, gravel and sands com- 
monly predominate. 

The alluvial deposits of the other valleys, especially those not now 
occupied by large streams, differ notably from those of the Ohio. 
In many places beneath about 10 feet of silty soil and a few feet 
of sand there lies a bed of blue clay that carries some pebbles and is 
over 35 feet thick. Some of this blue clay is clearly of glacial 
origin, representing an old till. Beneath the till gravelly deposits 
having a thickness of about 35 feet are again encountered, and 
beneath these is a 25-foot bed of blue clay, with sand and pebbles, 
possibly representing another till. At the base in Mill Creek valley 
there is 43 feet of sand and waterworn gravel with a little blue clay. 

In the smaller valleys and ravines entering the Ohio the alluvial 
deposits consist generally of coarse gravels, but the streams com- 
monly flow near bedrock and the deposits are of no great thiclmess. 

In addition to the alluvium of the present and abandoned river 
channels, already described, indications of old stream deposits exist 
at an elevation of about 740 feet at the north end of the village of 
Mount Washington and on the American Flats southeast of that 
town. These consist of sands and gravels containing at one locality 
the remains of a mastodon and other mammals. They apparently 
represent the channel of some small stream flowing near the crest 
of the uplands before the present valleys were developed. 

Ample supplies of water can be obtained from the alluvium in 
all the larger valleys, both of the present streams and of the 
abandoned Ohio channels. In general, a little water is found above 
the clay layers, but, as these are generally well above low-water level 
and are quickly drained whenever the river is low, the supplies are 
variable. It is only when the gravels beneath the clays are reached 
that permanent supplies are procured. At some places in the Miami 
and little Miami valleys the clays are absent and the first water is 
found in the gravels approximately at the stream level. Similar 
conditions exist in the abandoned valleys of the Ohio, except that 



112 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

in places it is necessary, in order to obtain large supplies, to sink 
to the level of the main Ohio Valley, which is considerably below 
the level of the small surface streams occupying the old channels. 
Supplies can be obtained from the coarse gravel deposits of the small 
tributaries wherever the stream grade is not too steep or the rock 
too near the surface. 

TEREACE GRAVELS. 

Standing above the Ohio flood plain, which has an altitude of 
about 475 feet, are a number of gravel terraces rising to various ele- 
vations from 540 to 550 feet. Examples of such terraces are found 
at California, at Home City, and at Cincinnati. Similar terraces 
are present along Little Miami River at elevations from 560 to 620 
feet. The terraces at Terrace Park and Milford are especially good 
examples. Along Mill Creek terraces rise to an altitude of over 600 
feet, or more than 80 feet above the stream. These are especially 
conspicuous in the vicinity of Carthage, Hartwell, and Arlington 
Heights. Similar, though less extensive, terraces exist along the 
Miami. The deposits are of alluvial origin and were laid down by 
the Ohio when it was flowing northward at its higher level to the 
Miami and thence southwestward through the Whitewater Valley.' 
These higher terraces are distinctly older than the lower ones along 
the Ohio, which were built by the stream at certain stages since it has 
been flowing in its present valley. Higher up the Little Miami, Mill 
Creek, and the Miami the streams have cut less deeply and are flow- 
ing nearer the terrace level. In most places near the northern edge 
of the county the streams are flowing on top of the deposits which 
farther down the valleys constitute the terraces. The higher terraces, 
where exposed, seem to be composed mainly of gravel and sand down 
to stream level, but borings are too few to indicate the character of 
the deposits below that level. One of the characteristic features of the 
terrace gravels is the occurrence in them of layers, locally called 
cement rock, which have been cemented into a hard crust by the 
deposition of iron oxide by percolating waters. The lower terraces, 
however, consist of the same succession of sands, clays, buried soils, 
trees, etc., that is found in the flood plains, the average section in 
the vicinity of Cincinnati being as follows : ^ 

Generalized section of terrace deposits near Cincinnati. 

Feet. 
Soil 2-5 

Gravel and sand, with seams of loam 40-60 

Brick clay, with sand and loam 20-30 

Buried soil, trees, leaves, etc 5-10 

Gravel and clay, 5-10 



72-115 



lOrton, Edward, Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 1, 1873, p. 432. 



HAMILTON COUNTY. 113 

Here and there small amounts of water accumulate in irregularities 
of the surface of the cemented layers in the gravelly portions of the 
high terraces, and some water is found in clay layers in the low 
terraces along the Ohio. To procure satisfactory supplies, however, 
wells must be carried to the general water level, which is commonly 
about at the elevation of the adjacent streams. As in the alluvial 
deposits, the terrace waters from the clays are high in phosphate of 
iron. The waters from the underlying gravels are likewise in all 
respects similar to those described under the alluvium. 

LOESS. 

Capping the flat uplands and certain of the high terraces is a thin 
mantle of a yellowish, somewhat clayey silt, known as loess. The 
deposits are best developed near the river, where they may have a 
thickness of 5 to 10 feet or more. From the river bluffs the thickness 
declines somewhat rapidly to the north, the deposits being of little 
importance except within a few miles of the Ohio. The loess, because 
of its thickness, is of no consequence as a water-bearing formation, but 
it assists materially in absorbing and holding rain water and in 
feeding it to the underlying till or weathered rock. 

TILL. 

Except on the st^ep bluffs facing the streams, Hamilton County is 
covered by a thin mantle of pebbly clay or till, ranging in thickness 
from 5 to 25 feet and in color from yellowish in the upper 5 or 10 
feet to blue in the lower part. Much of the till is somewhat gravelly 
and some of it may even include beds of water- deposited sand or 
gravel. 

The till affords supplies to shallow wells at many places on the 
upland plateaus, especially where it is 15 feet or more in thickness. 
Where it is thinner it is chiefly of importance in collecting the rain 
water and feeding it to the underlying rocks. Where gravelly lay- 
ers are found on the flat uplands good supplies are procured, but 
near the edge of the bluffs, where the water may escape readily, they 
are more difficult to obtain. 

MORAINAL DEPOSITS. 

Morainal deposits are very sparingly developed in Hamilton 
County, being confined to a very small area near the point where 
Mill Creek enters the county. They consist largely of gravels and 
sands, but include some clay or till. They form knolls and small 
hills from 10 to 20 feet or more in height and constitute a part of 
49130°— wsp 259—12 8 



114 UNDERGKOUND WATEES OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

the general belt which enters the county from the northeast near 
Sharonville and turns northwestward at Mill Creek, skirting the 
northern boundary on one side or the other as far as the Indiana 
line. Owing to the predominance of porous gravels water is rarely 
retained in the morainal deposits and wells in general must pene- 
trate the underlying formations to procure adequate supplies. 
Where till predominates in the moraines the water supply is the 
same as in the sheet of pebbly till. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 
RICHMOND AND MAYSVILLE FORMATIONS. 

The Richmond and MaysAdlle formations compose the upland sur- 
face throughout Hamilton County and occupy the upper parts of 
the bluffs down to about 300 feet above the Ohio. The surface of 
the rocks is generally much weathered and more or less disintegrated 
to a depth of several feet. The beds exposed appear to be between 
400 and 500 feet in total thickness and to consist mainly of alternat- 
ing layers of limestone and shale 1 to 10 inches thick ; in some places, 
however, as near the junction between the two formations, shale beds 
predominate. 

Owing to the presence of the loess and till considerable quantities 
of rain water are collected and fed to the disintegrated upper por- 
tion of the Richmond and Maysville formation. Open wells pene- 
trating to this weathered surface usually get sufficient water for 
ordinary domestic and farm purposes, but drilled wells rarely pro- 
cure adequate supplies. 

EDEN SHALE. 

The Eden consists of gray or bluish shales weathering olive or 
brownish and having a thickness of about 250 feet. Except for a 
few thin seams of limestone, it contains no porous or soluble layers 
in which water can circulate. The formation occupies the lower 250 
feet of the bluff?, extending up the larger valleys to points beyond 
the county line. Its base is a little below the level of the Ohio flood 
plain. 

The Eden shale affords no water whatever to drilled wells and in 
few places yields enough to supply even ordinary dug wells. 

UTICA SHALE. 

The Utica shale consists of a few feet of shale immediately under- 
lying the Eden, which it closely resembles in character. It is like- 
wise not water bearing. 



HAMILTON COUNTY. 115 

POINT PLEASANT FORMATION. 

The Point Pleasant formation consists of hard, compact, dark 
shale in layers up to 10 inches or more in thickness, alternating with 
similar layers of gray limestone. The total thickness is about 150 
feet, of which not more than 50 feet is above river level. The for- 
mation shows below the flood-plain level of the Ohio at numerous 
points throughout the county. 

Although this formation carries considerable water locally, the 
procuring of supplies is very uncertain and the water when found 
is likely to be salty or sulphurous. 

" BIRDSEYE " LIMESTONE. 

The " Birdseye " is a massive compact grayish limestone the top of 
which is about 100 feet below the level of the Ohio. Wells pene- 
trating it obtain more or less water, which, however, is commonly 
salty. Fresh water is not to be expected. 

ST. PETER SANDSTONE. 

The St. Peter sandstone is a porous sandstone approximately 400 
feet thick, the top of which lies about 700 feet below river level. 
Wells penetrating the formation get abundant supplies of sulpho- 
saline water, which will rise about 175 feet above the low water of the 
Ohio, but which, unfortunately, is unfit for anything but cooling 
purposes. 

CAMBRIAN AND ORDOVICIAN DOLOMITE. 

The Cambrian and Ordovician dolomite is a varicolored dolomitic 
limestone or marble, 3,000 feet or more in thickness, lying below the 
St. Peter. It has been penetrated at Cincinnati to a depth of nearly 
1,000 feet without yielding any material supply of water. 

CAMBRIAN SANDSTONE. 

The Cambrian sandstone, which is a prominent water-bearing 
formation in other parts of the country, may possibly occur beneath 
Hamilton County, but its depth, Avhich is at least 4,000 feet beloAv 
river level, is so great as to make drilling unprofitable, especially as 
the water it carries is almost sure to be sulphurous and unfit for use. 

NOTES BY TOWNS. ^ 
ARLINGTON HEIGHTS.a 

Within a short distance from the surface, wells at Arlington 
Heights enter blue clay, which is said to be at least 100 feet thick. 
Driving is very difficult and drilling or jetting is sometimes done. 
A layer of old wood, tree bark, etc., is reported at about 100 feet. 

1 The notes on Carthage, College Hill, Elmwood, Harrison, New Burlington, and St. 
Bernard are by Frederick G. Clapp, 
8 Copditions in 1906. 



116 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

CALIFORNIA.! 

Eight test borings, extending in a northeast-southwest direction 
from the New Richmond pike at California to a point in the river 
near the Kentucky shore, were sunk in 189G and 1897 by the board of 
trustees, commissioners of waterworks of Cincinnati. They brought 
out the interesting fact that the rock bottom of the Ohio is only about 
50 feet below low-water mark. Sections of borings on the river bank 
and in the river bottom are given below : - 

Section of horing on terrace at California. 

[Elevation 59 feet above low water.] 

Ft. in. 

Yellow clay 28 

Clay and fine sand 3 1 

Gravel and sand 8 8 

Coarse sand 25 8 

Sand and gravel 1 4 

Coarse sand 8 3 

Small gravel, sand, and large bowlders 1 6 

Coarse sand and gravel 12 6 

Coarse gi-avel _ 10 8 

Bedrock 6 2 



105 10 
Section of horing in river hed at Galifornia. 

[Elevation of river bed 9 feet 2 inches below low water.] 

Ft. in. 

Coarse sand 4 

Fine gravel 4 8 

Medium sand 8 9 

Fine gravel 14 

Bedrock 10 



32 3 

A 90-foot well, 4 inches in diameter, located on the river bank, 
fluctuates with the river. Where the rise is only 3 to 5 feet the well 
responds in a few hours, but with a rise of 50 feet the lag may be 
three or four days. During a small rise the well water stands 2 feet 
lower than the river, but during a large rise it is as much as 18 feet 
lower. The slowness of the response indicates the lack of free con- 
nection between the waters of the river and those of the alluvium, 
although the latter, as shown by the record, is nearly pure sand and 
gravel at this point. In the absence of analyses it can not be de- 
termined whether the rise in the well is due to the ponding of the 
ground water or to the penetration of waters from the river into the 
alluvium. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 

2 Second Ann. Rept. Board Trustees Com. Waterworks of Cincinnati, Jan. 1, 1899, fol- 
lowing p. 70. 



HAMILTON COUNTY. 117 

CARTHAGE.i 

The waterworks of Carthage are situated on the valley bottom at 
the western edge of the village, close to the Miami & Erie Canal, 
below the base of the surrounding hills. The supply is obtained 
from four 6-inch driven wells, Iavo 135 and two 137 feet deep. The 
water is found in gravel and is pumped by direct pressure into an 
80,0Q0-gallon cistern on the level of the pumping station and thence 
into the water mains. The pumps are run day and night. This 
water system was constructed in the year 1890, being the first plant in 
southern Ohio built and operated by an incorporated village. The 
same system supplies the towns of Elmwood and Winton Place and 
several factories. 

In and near the village of Carthage there are a number of drilled 
wells. One of them, belonging to the Chatfield Manufacturing Co., 
on the corner of Fifth and Lebanon streets, is about 200 feet deep. 
The principal water supply was obtained at 60 feet in gravel, and 
bedrock was struck at 100 feet. The ordinary water level is 40 feet 
below the surface. The temperature is 55° to 60°, and 50 to 60 gal- 
lons of water a minute can be obtained. 

On the slope of the hills directly east of Carthage is situated the 
Longview Hospital, which has an excellent supplj^ of water from 
three drilled wells, 143, 146, and 150 feet deep. The wells are 8 
and 10 inches in diameter and are sunk entirely in gravel, no rock 
being penetrated. They lie in line with the abandoned gravel-filled 
valley extending southeastward from the Miami to the Ohio. The 
principal water vein was struck at about 50 feet from the surface. 
The water is used for all domestic purposes and for boilers to supply 
1,350 inmates. The pumps are run nine hours a day, pumping about 
250,000 gallons of water from the station near the base of the slope 
to a reservoir on the hill. A mechanical filter is used. The water is 
good. For 25 years previous to the installation of the present supply 
a dug well 40 feet deep was used, but the water finally gave out. 
Another well was drilled to a depth pf several hundred feet, but no 
data regarding it could be obtained. 

CINCINNATI.! 

General conditions. — Most of the business part of Cincinnati is 
situated on a gravel terrace standing 500 to 540 feet above sea level 
or 70 to 110 feet above low-water level of the Ohio, but the por- 
tions near the Ohio and bordering Mill Creek are 20 to 40 feet lower 
and are sometimes partly covered by water during floods. In the 
outskirts of the city and its suburbs the hills rise to heights of over 
900 feet, or 300 feet above the terrace. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



118 UKDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTH WESTERK OHIO. 

As a consequence of the peculiar situation of the city, great varia- 
bility in the underground-water conditions has always prevailed. 
Originally water was obtained by shallow wells, but as the houses 
became more crowded the water became polluted, making it neces- 
sary to go deeper for supplies. For a time moderately deep wells 
were entirely successful, but as manufacturing establishments multi- 
plied the demand became too heavy for the supply or the water be- 
came polluted, so that many of these wells also had to be abandoned, 
although some are still used. Next, recourse was had to deep drilled 
wells, many of which were carried to 1,000 feet and some to more 
than 2,000 feet, but without finding any further fresh water of con- 
sequence, although plenty of the sulphosaline water was obtained. 
At present a few of the dug wells remain on the outskirts of the city 
and a number of the deep drilled wells are still in use, but most of 
the well water is obtained from the driven wells sunk in the alluvial 
or terrace deposits or for a few feet into the underlying rocks. The 
greater part of the business firms and practically all the citizens 
use the public supply. 

WeU records. — An unusually large number of wells have been sunk 

in Cincinnati owing to the large number of breweries and distilleries, 

the poor quality of the public supply, and other minor causes. As a 

result the possibilities of getting water in this way have been pretty 

well demonstrated. The probable amount of the water in both 

the unconsolidated deposits and the rock formations has already 

been discussed and numerous supplementary data are given in the 

tables (pp. 122-123, 130, 202-203). It only remains to present a few 

additional facts as to the nature of the materials and the position of 

the bedrock surface. The character of the deposits is best shown by 

the following log, which represents the best available record in the 

vicinity. The correlation of geologic formations is added by the 

writer 

Record of ivell of Cincinnati Oas Co., Front 8treet.<^ 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Artificial filling 

Soil 

Alluvium: 

Blue clay , 

Sand and gravel 

Point P leasant formation: 

Shale 

Blue limestone 

Blue and gray limestone 

Sandstone 

"Birdseye" limestone: 

Limestone 

White limestone 

St. Peter sandstone: 

Sandstone 

Sandstone, very hard 

Red sandstone 

White sandstone 

Coarse sandstone and limestone 

Sandstone 

Cambrian and Ordovician dolomite: Very hard red and white marble. 



Feet. 
5 
5 

20 
90 

3 

40 

50 

5 

380 
240 

65 
15 
62 
85 
15 
140 
25 



Feet. 
5 
10 

30 
120 

123 
163 
213 
218 



903 
918 
980 
1,065 
1,080 
1,220 
1,245 



« Bell, T. J., History of the water supply of the world, Cincinnati, 1882, pp. 1-7. 



HAMILTON COUNTY. 



119 



Of the shallower wells that of Timothy Kirby at Cummiiisville is 
of interest as showing the succession of materials in the Mill Creek 
valley. 

Record of Kirhy well, Cumminsville.<^ 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Soil and brick clay. 
Sand. 



Blue clay with gravel 

Gravel 

Coarse sand 

Sand with coaly fragments 

Blue clay with gravel (base level with low water of Ohio) . 

Blue clay, sand, and coaly fragments 

Sand, gravel, blue clay, and coaly fragments , 



?<. 


Feet. 


12 


12 


4 


16 


34 


50 


19 


69 


3 


72 


11 


83 


9 


92 


16 


108 


43 


151 



« Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 1, p. 433. 

The well of John Kaufman on Vine Street illustrates the character 
of the terrace materials in that part of Cincinnati. The distance to 
rock is among the greatest recorded at Cincinnati. 

Record of Kaufman well, Vine Street. 



Blue clay 

Sand and quicksand . 

Blue clay 

Quicksand and gravel 
Limestone 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet 



Depth. 



Feet. 
25 
100 
155 
190 
215 



The borings made by the board of trustees bring out the charac- 
ter of the deposits in the narrow part of the Ohio Valley opposite 
Dayton, Ky. : 

Record of horing in river Ijetween "torrence Road, Cincinnati, and Dayton, Ky. 
[Starts 5 feet above low-water mark.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



gravel and bowlders. 

Sand 

Coarse gravel and bowlders. 

Fine sand 

Limestone 



Ft. 
11 

2 
12 
13 

4 



Ft. in. 
11 8 

13 8 
26 



44 



Record of horing at foot of Lumher Street, Cincinnati, opposite Dayton, Ky. 
[Starts 54 feet 10 inches above low-water mark.] 



Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 


Ft. in. 
3 

3 4 
29 2 

4 10 

7 
3 6 


Ft. in. 

3 

6 4 
35 6 
40 4 
40 11 
44 5 



Sand and bowlders. . . 

Blue clay 

Brown and black clay. 

Gravel 

Blue clay 

Clay and soapstone . . . 



120 



UNDEEGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



The borings represented by the next three records show the char- 
acter of the materials along a section extending from East Cincinnati 
to California, across the valley of the Little Miami. The first is 
located about half a mile south of Columbia, the second on the west 
bank of the Little Miami, and the third on the terrace near California 
on which the filter beds are located. 

Record of horing near junction of Turkey Bottom Road and Richmond Pike. 

[Starts 59 feet 7 inches above low-water mark.] 



Thick- 
ness. 




Depth. 



Loam 

Sandy loam 
Blue clay . . . 

Gravel 

Brown sand 
Gray sand . . 

Gravel 

Rock 



Ft. in. 
10 
22 

35 ] 

58 5 

85 e 

92 J 



100 



Record of 'boring on west hank of Little Miami three-fourths of a mile above 

the mouth. 

[Starts 40 feet 6 inches above low-water mark.] 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Clay 

Gravel 

Coarse sand 

Fine sand 

Gravel 

Yellow and blue clay 
Rock 



Ft. 


in. 


Ft. 


in. 


24 


10 


24 


10 


9 


7 


34 


5 


5 


8 


40 


1 


30 




70 


1 


5 


6 


75 


7 


1 


2 


76 


9 




7 


77 


4 



Record of boring on site of filter beds, California, Ohio. 
[Starts 98 feet 10 inches above low-water mark.] 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Sandy loam. 
Yellow clay . 
Fine sand... 
Blue clay . . . 
Gray sand.. 
Brown sand 
Black sand. 
Sand, gravel 
Bedrock . . . 



Ft. 


in. 


Ft. in. 


10 




10 


3 




13 


33 




46 


49 




95 


15 




110 


9 




119 


2 




121 


10 


4 


131 4 




2 


131 6 



Eock floor. — A study of the well records brings out a number of 
interesting facts regarding the configuration of the rock surface be- 
neath Cincinnati and the old channel. Near the bluif which borders 
the city on the northeast the rock is relatively high, generally being 



HAMILTON COUNTY. 1^1 

within 40 or 50 feet of the surface, or nearly 50 feet above low water 
in the Ohio. A quarter of a mile from the foot of the hills, however, 
the rock is between 50 and 75 feet from the surface, or only 20 feet 
above low-water mark, and a little farther out it drops abruptly to 
about 150 feet, or 50 feet or more below low water. These depths occur 
along a line extending from a point west of the suspension bridge 
northward and northwestward to the corner of John and Liberty 
streets, beyond which the depth to rock is not known. Rock is pene- 
trated by wells between the Chesapeake & Ohio and suspension 
bridges, at the Gibson House, Emery Hotel, Palace Hotel, and near 
the comers of Elm and Canal streets, Dayton Street and Central 
Avenue, and Liberty and John streets. To the east, as shown by 
wells in the vicinity of Ludlow Street, rock is well above river level, 
coming within 30 or 40 feet of the surface. Similar depths are shown 
by wells near the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton depot and near the 
corner of Front and Harriet streets. These depths indicate a deep 
channel running at right angles to the Ohio and connecting with an 
old channel of Licking River near the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway 
bridge, representing without doubt the course of the Licking when 
it flowed northward to join the old Ohio — then flowing in the vicinity 
of Norwood back of Cincinnati (p. 19) and north of St. Bernard. 

The depth to rock in the Mill Creek valley south of the Liberty 
Street viaduct is not so great as it is in the old Licking channel, 
though greater than under the land immediately to the east and some- 
what more than in the present Ohio channel above the mouth of the 
Licking, where the rock appears to be at no great distance below the 
bottom. 

Deep wells. — A large number of wells have been drilled in Cin- 
cinnati and vicinity, particulars of a considerable number of which 
are given in the following table. Many of them were sunk years ago, 
and most of the data have long been lost; others were put down by 
drillers who have since died or moved to other localities; and still 
others were sunk by drillers who kept no memoranda. The informa- 
tion presented affords, however, an indication of the thickness of the 
surface deposits, the depth to the rock floor, and the character and 
volume of water supplies. 



122 



UNDERGEOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



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HAMILTON COUNTY. 



123 



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1^4 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

Public supylies} — The public supply of Cincinnati has for many 
years been obtained from Ohio River, the water being used with- 
out treatment. The water is nearly always muddy and is at all times 
more or less polluted by sewage from cities farther up the stream, 
giving rise to numerous cases of typhoid fever and other filth diseases. 
Of late years, owing to accidents to the machinery and other causes, 
the supply has often been entirely inadequate, the upper part of the 
town being practically without water for days at a time. The urgent 
need of new supplies was finally recognized and steps taken to inves- 
tigate the available sources. 

The great advantages of well water over river water in palata- 
bility and in safety were apparent. The possible sources of supply 
suggested were rock wells and alluvium wells or infiltration galleries. 
It was quickly concluded, however, that none of these sources was 
practicable. Cincinnati is, in fact, very poorly located for obtaining 
ir^upplies from underground sources. As it is underlain by lime- 
stones and shales extending to a depth of 900 feet or more and carry- 
ing water only in smallest amounts — insufficient even for private 
wells — a public supply from these formations is out of the question. 
Below the limestone lies the St. Peter sandstone, which, as has been 
Bhown by the success of many of the deep brewery wells, yields larger 
supplies. The head of the water, however, has already been lowered 
and the supply decreased by the relatively few private wells drawing 
upon it, making it clear that the supply would be insufficient for the 
city's needs, even if the water were suitable. This, however, is not 
the case, the water being exceedingly hard and highly charged with 
salt, iron, and sulphur, which gives it a very strong and objectionable 
taste. Moreover, some of the constituents would actively attack boil- 
ers and pipes and greatly shorten their lives. As there is no known 
method of treating such waters economically, their use is out of the 
question. 

The alluvium, although present over considerable areas along Ohio 
and Little Miami rivers and yielding enough water for many indus- 
trial establishments, does not afford at any point sufficient supply to 
warrant the belief that enough for the city's use could be obtained 
from a single or even from several localities. To obtain the desired 
amount, in fact, it would be necessary to construct a considerable 
number of scattered and entirely separate pumping plants, the cost 
of operating which would be prohibitive. Besides, the waters of the 
ordinary alluvium are very hard, containing several times the amount 
of incrusting constituents carried by the river water. This is brought 
out in the following summary : 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



HAMILTON COUNTY. 



125 



Comparative composition of water from alluvium and river water. 
[ Parts per million.] 



Source. 



Chlorine. 



Incrustants. 



Sul- 
phate 



Carbo- 
nates. 



Total 
solids. 



Alluvium (average of 50 samples) . 
River (daily analyses 1898) 



331 
45 



350 
120 



A source of supply that has been successful at other localities is a 
series of infiltration wells or galleries sunk in sand bars in the river 
or along the river banks. Where the demands are relatively small 
this method works admirably, but it is open to several objections for 
a large city like Cincinnati. One of the strongest of these is the lia- 
bility of the uncovering of the wells or galleries by changes in the 
bottom of the stream or in its banks in times of flood, leading either 
to the destruction of the entire plant or, at least, to the removal of 
filtering materials and an influx of raw water. Moreover, between 
floods, silts are likely to collect over the infiltrating surfaces, result- 
ing in a clogging of the pores. Again, though this method would 
yield more water than would wells in ordinary alluvium, it is almost 
certain that several plants would have to be maintained in order to 
procure the necessary amounts. The supplies under this system can 
not be so readily increased under new demands as can those directly 
from the river. Forced pumping would be dangerous for the reason 
that the water would be drawn through with insufficient filtration. 

On the whole it seems certain that the obtaining of supplies for 
the city of Cincinnati from underground sources is out of the ques- 
tion, or, at least, would be more costly than filtered river water, which 
it was finally decided to introduce. If the plant is efficiently man- 
aged the filtered water should be safe for domestic use and it has 
the advantage of being much softer and more suitable for boilers 
than waters from underground sources. 

COLLEGE HILL.i 

The village of College Hill lies on the uplands, where the glacial 
drift averages about 15 feet in depth. The water supply is pur- 
chased from the city of Cincinnati, but there are a few dug wells in 
the village that range from 18 to 35 feet deep and one drilled well 
that extends to a depth of 201 feet. The wells are reported to yield 
a fair amount of water, but that from the dug wells is not recom- 
mended for drinking. The water of the public supply at College 
Hill is reported to be of much better quality than the same water in 



1 Conditions in 1906. 



126 UNDEKGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

Gincinnati, for the reason that it is pumped from the Mount Auburn 
Keservoir to the standpipe at College Hill, and in both of these places 
it has a chance to settle. 

ELMWOOD.i 

At the western edge of Elmwood the works of the Laidlaw-Dunn- 
Gordon Co. are supplied by eight drilled wells 8 inches in diameter, 
which seem to give satisfaction. The record of one of them is as 
follows : 

Record of deep well of Laidlaw-Dunn-Gordon Co., Elmwood. 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Earth 

Sand and gravel 

Fine sand 

Blue clay 

Bowlders 

Water-bearing sand . . 
Very rough bowlders. 



Ft. 


in. 


Ft. in. 


4 





4 


6 





10 




6 


10 6 


57 


6 


68 


3 





71 


41 





112 



The water in three wells stands 4 feet from the surface; and 280 
gallons a minute can be obtained from a single well for an hour at 
a time, one well being pumped by an air lift, the rest by steam head. 

HARRISON.i 

The town of Harrison is supplied with water by the Harrison 
Water & Light Co., which owns four driven wells on the flood plain 
of Whitewater River, situated 200 feet from the river, a short dis- 
tance west of Harrison, in Indiana. From the wells the water is 
pumped to a standpipe 110 feet in height. The wells are about 40 
feet in depth and are entirely in river gravel. 

IVORYDALE.i 

At Ivorydale, about one-fourth mile west of the waterworks at St. 
Bernard, on the flood plain of Mill Creek, are the works of the 
Procter & Gamble Co., which are supplied by eight wells sunk in 
gravel and four wells drilled into rock. The rock wells are 1,200 
to 1,600 feet in depth, and obtain very salty but very cold water, 
which is used for condensing. The gravel wells are only 117 to 150 
feet deep and struck rock at 117 to 120 feet. They are 8 to 10 inches 
in diameter. It is reported that 3,000,000 gallons a day are pumped 
from the eight wells by an air compressor. The water is used for 
drinking, for condensing, and, after being treated, for boilers. When 
not pumped it stands 20 to 25 feet below the surface. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



HAMILTON COUNTY. 12? 

The following record of a well at the Procter & Gamble works is 
of interest as showing the large preponderance of " clay " in the 
deposits of Mill Creek at this point, the proportion being much 
greater than at Connorville, a short distance farther down the valley. 
It is quite possible that a considerable part of the clay is in reality 
a clayey till. The well is located 74 feet above low water of the 
Ohio. 

Record of well of Procter & Gamble, Ivorydale.'^ 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Loam 

Gravel 

Clay 

Sand and gravel . 

Yellow sand 

Clay 

Gravel and sand . 



Ft. in. 

5 8 

5 

49 4 

5 

11 6 

20 6 

1 



Ft. in. 

5 8 

10 8 

60 

65 

76 6 

97 

98 



« James, J. F., Proc. Cincinnati Sec. Nat. Hist., vol. 11, 1888. pp. 102-103. 

Two other wells were drilled at this place, but in them the gravel 
was cut out by clay and the water vein was not struck. 

MADISONVILLE.i 

The public supply of Madisonville is obtained from three 140- 
foot wells sunk in the deep gravel and sand deposits filling the old 
Ohio Eiver channel (p. 20). Plenty of water is obtained, a large 
proportion of the inhabitants of the town availing themselves of the 
public supply. Very few private wells are to be found. Further 
tern will be found in the table on page 52. 

NORWOOD.i 

Norwood, like Madisonville, is located on the gravels occupying 
the old channel of the Ohio and has very few private wells, most of 
the people depending on the public supply. A number of the manu- 
facturing establishments, however, have wells, some of which are of 
considerable depth and yield large supplies. 

The deepest well in town is said to be that of the United States 
Playing Card Co., which has a diameter of 10 inches and a depth 
of 400 feet, all but 148 feet of which is reported to be in rock. This 
well will yield with an air lift 425 gallons a minute without lowering 
the supply. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



128 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

Another well sunk in 1906 struck rock at 220 feet. The record of 
this well, by 20-foot intervals, is as follows : 

Record of deep well, Norwood, Ohio. 

Feet. 

Soil and coarse sand 20 

Blue clay 40 

Gravel and rock 60 

Fine gravel 80 

Blue clay 100 

Blue clay and gravel 120 

Sand 140 

Coarse sand with pebbles__ 160 

Water sand 180 

Gravel 200 

Blue clay or shale 220 

Rock 240 

The record is of interest in showing a considerable amount of blue 
clay, a part of which is probably till. A generalized section of the 
deposits at Norwood is given by a local driller as follows : 

Generalized section of tvells at Norwood, Ohio. 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Clayey sand and gravel . 
Water-bearing gravel. . . 

Hard shaly clay 

Fine sand 

Gravel and cobbles 

Rock. 



Feet. 

100 

15 

15 

35 



Feet. 
100 
115 
130 
165 
225 



Norwood has a public supply derived from two deep wells sunk 
in materials similar to those of the section given in the preceding 
paragraph. The water is of good quality and is abundant, supplying 
both Norwood and the village of Idlewild. Particulars of the sys- 
tem will be found in the table on page 52. 

ST. BERNARD.i 

The public supply of St. Bernard is drawn from two 15-inch 
drilled wells, sunk on the inner edge of the flood plain of Mill Creek 
at the base of the surrounding hills. The water is raised by an air 
lift and is pumped by direct pressure to a 270,000-gallon standpipe 
125 feet above the main street. Five wells were originally drilled, 
to depths of 105 to 270 feet, but the casing of three of them gave 

1 Conditions in 1906, 



HAMILTON COUNTY. 129 

out and they were abandoned. One of the wells still in use obtains 
90 gallons of water a minute with a steam-head pump. The second 
well is pumped by an air lift, by which a maximum yield of 550 
gallons a minute can be obtained. The water stands 41 feet from the 
surface and is lowered 7 feet when pumped for three to five hours. 
Although the water is obtained in gravel at a depth of 132 to 135 
feet, one of the wells is 270 feet deep, having struck rock at 135 feet. 
The waterworks wells are reported to have robbed all the shallow 
wells within a mile. Some of the shallow wells went to depths of 
30 to 60 feet. The water in dug wells here is not so hard as that in 
the wells of the public supply. 

SYMMES TOWNSHIP.i 

Chappendocia Springs, located in Symmes Township, in a ravine 
on the west side of Little Miami River, about 2 miles below Love- 
land, emerge from a yellow clay resulting from the weathering of the 
underlying limestone and shale. The water, which is chalybeate in 
character, was formerly extensively distributed in Cincinnati but is 
not at present sold, although it may be put on the market again in the 
near future. 

WYOMING.i 

The waterworks of Wyoming, situated on the west side of the 
Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway, near the north end of 
town, comprise four 8-inch driven wells in the valley gravels. One 
well is 104 feet deep and the other three 197 feet deep. The latter 
pass through 8 feet of gravel and strike bedrock at the bottom. The 
water in all of them occurs in gravel and rises within 45 feet of the 
surface. An air compressor is used and 450 gallons of water a 
minute can be obtained. xA.t least 1,000,000 gallons of water is 
reported to have been pumped in 24 hours. By pumping 1,400 
gallons a minute from three of the wells for 24 hours, the water in 
the other well is lowered 5 feet. These waterworks supply not only 
Wyoming, but also the villages of Hartwell, Lockland, and Arling- 
ton. The water is pumped into a reservoir 234 feet above the pump- 
ing station, the capacity being 4,000,000 gallons. The system was 
installed in 1892. 

WATER PROSPECTS. 

A summary of the underground water conditions in Hamilton 
County is presented in the following table : 

1 Conditions in 1906. 
49130°— wsp 259—12 9 



130 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

Underground-water conditions in Hamilton County. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water 
supply. 


Addyson 


Terrace gravel. 
do 


Feet. 

100± 
15 


Plenty... 
...do 


Eden, Point 

Pleasant. 
do 


Point Pleasant.... 
do 




Andersons Ferry. 


Do. 


Asbury 


Till 




Richmond and 

Maysviile. 
... do 


Richmond and 
MaysviUe. 
do 


Do 


A vondale 


. do 




Do 


Bevis 


do 


15 
15 

15 




do 


do.. . 


Do. 


Blue Ash 


. ..do 


Moderate 


... .do 


do 


Do 


BondHiU 


Gravel, glacial. 
Till 


Point Pleasant.... 
Richmond and 
Maysviile. 


Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 

Maysviile. 
... do 


Do. 




Fair 


Do 




do 


Do. 


California 


Alluvium . . 




Point Pleasant. . . . 
Eden . 


Point Pleasant 

do 


Do 


Camp Dennison. . 


do 


100+ 
250 ± 

15 

10 

15 

5-150 


Plenty... 
...do 

Moderate 

Plenty 


Do! 


Carthage 


Alluvium, gla- 
cial gravel. 
Till . . . 


Point Pleasant. . . . 

Richmond and 
Maysviile. 
do 


do 


Do. 


Cedar Point 


Richmond and 

MaysvUle. 
do 


Do 


Cherry Grove 


do 


Do 


do 


Moderate 
do.... 

Plenty... 


do 


do 


Do. 


Cincinnati 

Cleves 


AUuvium,till, 
terrace grav- 
el. 

Alluvium 


Eden, Point 
Pleasant. 

Point Pleasant 

Eden 


Point Pleasant 
(see also notes). 

Point Pleasant.... 
do 


Do. 
Do. 


Cluff . . 


do 




Do 


CoUegeHill 

Creed viUe 


Till 


15 
15 


Small 

...do 


Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 
do 


Richmond and 

Maysviile. 
do 


Do. 


do 


Do. 


Crescentville . 


Drift 


Eden 


Point Pleasant.... 
do 


Do 


Delhi 


Terrace sands . 
TiU 


100+ 
15 
15 


Plenty... 


Eden, Point 

Pleasant. 
Richmond and 

Maysviile. 
do 


Do. 


Dent 


Richmond and 

MaysvUle. 
do 


Do. 


Dunlop 


do 




Do. 


Eightmile 

Elizabethtown... 


Alluvi um, 
talus. 

Alluvium 

do 




Eden 


Point Pleasant. . . . 
. do 


Do. 


50 
Deep. 

15 

20 

200+ 

15 

100+ 

200 ± 
20+ 

140+ 

15 

100 
20 

Deep. 

20 

150 

Deep. 

50+ 

15 

15 
15 
18 

"'"is"" 

20 


Moderate 
Plenty... 


Point Pleasant 


Do. 


Elmwood 


do 


do 

do 

Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 
do 

Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 
Point Pleasant.... 

do 


Do! 


Fembank 


do 


do 


do 


Do. 


Forestville 


Till 


Moderate 

...do...... 

Plenty... 


Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 
do 

Eden 


Do. 


Fruit Hill 


do 


Do. 


Glendale 


do 


Do. 


Groesbeck 


do 


Richmond and 

Maysviile. 
Eden, Point 

Pleasant. 
Eden 


Do. 




Alluvium, gla- 
cial gravel. 

Alluvium 

Till 


Plenty... 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Small.... 

Plenty... 


Do. 


Hartwell 


Do. 


Hazelwood 


Richmond and 

Maysviile. 
Eden, Point 

Pleasant. 
Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 

Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 
Eden 


Richmond and 

Maysviile. 
Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 

Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 

Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 
Point Pleasant.... 

do 

do 


Do. 


Home City 

Hyde Park 

Ivory dale 

Kennedy 


Terrace sands. 
Till 


Do. 
Do. 


Alluvium 

Till 


Do. 
Do. 


Lockland . ... 


Alluvium 

Till 


Plenty... 


Do. 


Mack 


Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 
Eden(?) 


Do. 


Maderia 


Alluvium 

Glacial gravel. 

Alluvium 

Terrace gravel. 
Till 


Moderate 
Plenty... 


Do. 


MadisonviUe 


Point Pleasant 

Eden 


Do. 
Do. 


Miamiville 


Plenty... 


do 

Richmond and 

MaysvUle. 
do 


...do 


Do. 


Monfort 


Richmond and 

MaysvUle. 
do 


Do. 




do 


Fair 


Do. 


Mount Airy 


do 




do 


...do 


Do. 


Mount Healthy.. 


do 

do 

do 

Till, old 

gravels. 
Alluvium 


Moderate 


do 


do 


Do. 


Mount St. Joseph 


Eden 


Point Pleasant 

Richmond and 

MaysvUle. 
do 


Do. 


Richmond and 

MaysvUle. 
Eden 


Do. 


Mount Washing- 
ton. 
New Haven 


Plenty... 
do 


Do. 


Point Pleasant.... 
do 

do 


Point Pleasant 

do 

do 


Do. 


Newtown 

North Bend 


do 

Terrace gravel. 
Glacial gravels 


Deep. 

100± 

Deep. 


:::do::::: 

do 


Do. 
Do. 


Norwood 


...do 


do 


do 


Do. 



HIGHLAND COUNTY. 131 

Underground-water conditions in Hamilton County — Continued. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water 
supply. 


Oakley 


Glacial gravels 

Alluvium 

Till 


Feet. 
12 


Plenty. . . 

...do 

Moderate 


Point Pleasant 

Eden. 


Point Pleasant 

do 


Small. 


Plain ville 


Do. 


Pleasant Ridge... 
Pleasant Run 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
Eden(?) 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

Point Pleasant 

do 


Do. 


do 


Do. 


Preston 


Alluvium 






Point Pleasant (?) 
Richmond and 

Maysville. 
Eden 


Do. 


Price Hill...... 


Till 


10 




Richmond and 
Maysville. 

Point Pleasant 

do 


Do. 








Do. 


Remington 


Terrace gravel. 
do 


50+ 
100± 


Plenty 


. .do 


Do. 


...do 

Small 

Plenty... 


Eden, Point Pleas- 
ant. 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

Point Pleasant 

Eden 


do 


Do. 


Rossmoyne 

St. Bernard 

Sater.. 


Till 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
Point Pleasant — 
. . do 


Do. 


Glacial gravels 
Terrace gravel . 


120 


Do. 
Do. 


Sedamsville 


Alluvium, ter- 
race gravel. 
Terrace gravel. 
Till, moraine.. 


100 ± 
100± 


Plenty... 
...do 


Eden, Point Pleas- 
ant. 
do 


do 


Do. 


Sekitan 


do 




Sharon ville 




Eden 


.do 


Do. 


Silverton 


Till 


20 
30+ 




Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


Do. 


S i X t eenmile 


do 

Alluvium 


Fair 


Do. 


Stand. 
Snyder 




Eden(?) 


Point Pleasant.... 
. .do 


Do. 


Springdale 


Till, moraine 






Eden 


Do. 




Alluvium, ta- 
lus. 

Alluvium 

do 






Point Pleasant 


do 


Do. 


Symmes 


25 


Plenty... 


Eden 


do 


Do. 


Taylors Creek 


do 


. do 


Do. 


Terrace Park 


Terrace gravel. 
TUl 


75+ 
15 

100 ± 

15 

Deep. 

200 ± 
200 


Moderate 


...do 


do 


Do. 


Transit 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

Eden, Point Pleas- 
ant. 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

Point Pleasant — 

Eden . . 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
Point Pleasant.... 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 
Point Pleasant.... 
do ■- 


Do. 


Trautman 

Westwood 


Terrace gravel. 
Till 


Plenty... 

Small 

Moderate 
Plenty... 
...do 


Do. 
Do. 


Whitewater 

Woodlawn 


Alluvium 

Till 


Do. 
Do. 


Wyoming 


Alluvium 


do 


do 


Do. 













HIGHLAND COUNTY. 



By M. L. Fuller. 



In Highland County the investigations for the present report were 
confined mainly to the central and western parts, relatively little at- 
tention being paid to the eastern third, which was reserved for future 
study. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

Highland County is characterized by greater diversity of surface 
than the counties to the north and may be divided into a number of 
districts according to the nature of its physical features. Along the 
western border, where the land is lowest, the surface is a flat and to a 
large extent a marshy drift plain at an elevation of 930 to 1,030 feet, 
underlain by blue limestone (Richmond). The central part of the 
county, which is about 100 feet higher, consists of flat-crested, 
plateau-like ridges alternating with wide, deep valleys, as in the 



132 UNDEEGKOUND WATEKS OF SOUTH WESTEKN OHIO. 

vicinity of Hillsboro. In the northern part of the county the land 
is still higher and in general is covered by a smooth mantle of drift, 
with a few sharp valleys cut in the drift and limestone. At the 
south boundary the drift is thinner and the land lower and cut by 
many streams, the average elevation being under 1,000 feet. The 
highest land in the county is along the eastern boundary, where hills 
rise to an elevation of over 1,300 feet, or several hundred feet above 
the adjacent lowlands. The county is crossed in a northwest-south- 
east direction by two low morainal ridges, one in the northeastern 
part and the other southwest of Hillsboro. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

ALLUVIUM. 

The streams of Highland County are in general of small size, flow 
in relatively small channels, and are bordered by narrow deposits of 
alluvium. In the valleys occupied by the gently flowing streams of 
the flatter portions of the county much of the alluvium is rather fine, 
sands and silts predominating, but in those of the more swiftly 
flowing streams, in the more hilly regions the alluvium, if present at 
all, is commonly in the form of coarse gravel. In some places the 
streams flow locally on bare rock, no alluvium whatever being present. 

The alluvium will usually afford satisfactory supplies to wells, 
especially in the broader and flatter valleys. In the smaller ravines 
the gravels are not usually so situated as to be readily available as 
sources of supply. 

TILL. 

The pebbly clay or till covers the entire county except the extreme 
southeast corner, but it is very thin toward its outer edge in the south- 
east and in many places is difficult to detect. Farther west and north 
it thickens considerably. In the northwestern half of the county 
the older drift just described is covered by a younger sheet, which 
adds materially to the total thickness. The lowest till is usually a 
blue pebbly clay 20 feet or less in thickness, but in some places yel- 
low, white, or black clays rest on the rock. On top of the blue clay in 
some localities, especially on the plateaus, is a layer of soil or of more 
or less peaty deposits, these being in turn covered by 20 or 30 feet of 
gravelly drift. 

The water supplies of the till are not large but are generally 
abundant enough to supply ordinary wells wherever the till has 
a thickness of 20 feet or more. Wells encountering the soil zone 
usually find plenty of water, but it has an objectionable taste and is 
little used for drinking. 



HIGHLAND COUNTY. 133 

MOBAINAL DEPOSITS AND STEATIFIED DRIFT. 

Under morainal deposits and stratified drift are included deposits 
overlying the ordinary till, or pebbly blue clay. In some of the 
true morainal deposits till forms a considerable part of the ma- 
terials, but in others the deposits are prevailingly gravelly, with 
here and there a layer cemented to sandstone or conglomerate by 
iron or lime. In some places this gravelly material is as much as 
90 feet thick. The morainal material reaches its greatest thickness 
in the belt southwest of Hillsboro and in the northeast corner of the 
county. 

The stratified drift that lies in valleys may carry considerable 
water, and even on the uplands moderate amounts may be found in 
the thicker deposits if the land is fairly flat. Where the peaty bed 
occurs in the till very strong mineral water unfit for use is often 
obtained. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

CARBONIFEROUS SANDSTONE, OHIO SHALE, AND " HELDERBEBG " LIMESTONE. 

The Carboniferous (Mississippian) sandstone, 100 feet thick, is 
the uppermost formation in the county. Just below it lies the Ohio 
shale (Devonian), 250 feet thick, succeeded by the "Helderberg" 
limestone (Silurian), 100 feet thick. These formations occupy 
small areas among the high hills near the eastern border of the 
county but are outside of the scope of the present investigation, 
which considers only the " Niagara " and lower rocks. 

" NIAGARA " LIMESTONE. 

The " Niagara " formation in Highland County has a total thick- 
ness of 275 feet and consists, from the base upward, of a few feet 
of bedded limestone, 60 to 100 feet of shales, 45 feet of yellowish 
magnesian limestone, 45 feet of blue limestone, 20 to 90 feet of 
massive magnesian limestone, mainly capping the hilltops, and 30 
feet of white to yellow sandstone, known as the Hillsboro sandstone, 
occurring on the higher hills near this town and at points to the 
east. The " Niagara " limestone as a whole forms the surface over 
all but the eastern fourth of the county, with the exception of a few 
of the higher hills north of Hillsboro and the creek beds along the 
southern boundary, underlying the higher plateaus east of the lower 
drift-covered plateau of the Eichmond formation. 

As in the adjacent counties, the "Niagara" is the best of the 
water-bearing rock formations, affording large numbers of springs 
from the top of the shaly layers and nearly everywhere yielding 
fairly good supplies to wells sunk to the same beds. Considerable 



134 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

water also occurs in the thick limestone beds independently of the 
shales, but the supplies are smaller and less certain than those on 
top of the shale beds. The sandstone forming the top of the forma- 
tion also doubtless contains water where it is of considerable extent, 
especially if it is under cover of younger formations. In the part 
of the county investigated, however, it is found only on one or two 
of the higher isolated crests, where its water is readily drained 
away into the adjacent valleys. 

" CLINTON " LIMESTONE. 

The " Clinton " limestone in Highland County is a semicrystalline 
pinkish limestone, grading in places into a red limestone or even an 
impure iron ore, as at Rocky Fork, south of Hillsboro. Its lower 
part is in many places sandy and in the southern part of the county 
locally includes a conglomerate. In thickness it ranges from 25 to 
60 feet, with an average of about 35 feet. Its outcrop occurs along 
the western border of the " Niagara " area, as described above, along 
the sides of the deeper valleys in the southern part of the county, and 
for several miles along Rocky Fork south of Hillsboro. 

The " Clinton," as everywhere else in this part of Ohio, is charac- 
terized by numerous springs emerging mainly from its base along 
the contact with the shaly layers of the underlying Richmond forma- 
tion and here and there from points higher in the formation. It 
usually affords a fairly satisfactory source of supply for wells, ex- 
cept when it occurs at the surface without the drift covering. Where 
it is overlain by the " Niagara," water is usually found in the higher 
formation, and it is as a rule not necessary for the wells to penetrate 
to the " Clinton." 

RICHMOND FORMATION. 

The upper 10 or 20 feet of the Richmond formation is in places a 
red shale^ as at Belfast, on Brush Creek, but is probably more com- 
monly a blue shale. Below this comes a thick series of thin alter- 
nating layers of limestone and shale, of which only the upper 50 or 
100 feet is exposed in Highland County. The formation occurs be- 
neath the low drift-covered plateau in the western fourth of the 
county and in the deeper valleys along the southern edge. 

The Richmond is not a strong water-bearing formation, but it 
usually ^delds enough water to open wells for ordinary domestic 
and farm requirements, especially where it is overlain by 10 feet 
or more of drift. Many drilled wells, however, have difficulty in ob- 
taining sufficient water from it. It is of importance in furnishing 
an impervious layer to retain the waters of the overlying " Clinton." 



HIGHLAND COUNTY. 135 

NOTES BY TOWNS. 
HILLSBORO.i 

Hillsboro, like nearly every other town of importance in south- 
western Ohio, sank a deep well in search of oil or gas during 
the boom in 1887. The well was carried to a depth of 1,750 feet, 
striking the " Birdseye " at 1,200 feet, or 100 feet below sea level, 
and obtaining salt water, presumably from the St. Peter sandstone, 
at 1,750 feet. 

A number of springs emerge from the " Niagara " limestone on 
the uplands near Hillsboro. One of these, which may be taken as a 
type, is that of J. L. West, 3^ miles north of town. It has a constant 
flow, independent of seasons, of about 5 gallons a minute, emerging 
from a bedding plane of the limestone and forming a small pond. 
A spring house serves also as a dairy. An analysis of the water will 
be found in the table on pages 204-205^ 

Hillsboro has a public water supply obtained from eleven wells 
located near or in. the bed of Clear Creek north of town. No pollu- 
tion seems possible at present, and the water is to be regarded as 
safer than that from shallower private wells. Other particulars 
regarding the supply will be found on page 52. 

LEESBURG.i 

Leesburg is located on a drift-covered Niagara plateau most of the 
wells entering the rock at about 15 feet. All water is from the lime- 
stone. The materials encountered are somewhat as follows : 

Section in wells at Leeshnrg, Ohio. 





Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 


Drift 


Feet. 
15 

85 
100 


Feet, 
15 


"Niagara" limestone: 

Limestone . . . . 


100 


Shale 


200 







A public system was in process of installation at Leesburg in 1906, 
the supply being obtained from four drilled wells 100 to 200 feet in 
depth, with sections similar to that given above. The estimated 
capacity is 100,000 gallons a day. For other particulars the table on 
page 52 should be consulted. 



LYNCHBURG. 



Two deep wells have recently been sunk at the Freiberg & Workum 
distillery, Lynchburg, to depths of about 1,550 feet in search of water, 



1 Conditions in 1906. 



136 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

but the amounts obtained were so small that an hour's pumping with 
an air-lift system exhausted the wells. The St. Peter sandstone was 
entered but was not penetrated far enough to secure the sulpho- 
saline water which is generally encountered at about 300 feet from 
the top. Shooting the well did not materially increase its yield. 
The following is a record compiled by the writer from samples fur- 
nished by the company. 

LiM of samples from ivell of Freilerg & Worhmn, Lynch'burg, Ohio. 

Richmond and Maysville formations: ^^infeet"^^ ^ 

Liglit-gray calcareous sliale 115 

Gray argillaceous limestone 180 

Light-gray shale and argillaceous limestone 270 

Gray argillaceous limestone 420 

Dark-gray limestone and gray shale 520 

Eden shale: Gray shale and dark-gray limestone 650 

Point Pleasant formation : 

Light-gray limestone, highly ferruginous, cemented 850 

Nearly black calcareous shale and limestone with some 

white limestone 920 

Gray and white limestone and black argillaceous shale 960 

" Birdseye " limestone : 

Light-gray to white limestone and light-gray shale 980 

Fine-grained compact grayish limestone resembling litho- 
graphic stone . 1, 100 

Same, with slight pink or buff tinge 1,210 

Dark compact brownish-gray limestone and gray, cal- 
careous shale 1,420 

St. Peter sandstone: 

Dark argillaceous and light-gray sandy shale 1, 460 

Very fine quartzose and biotitic sandstone with a little 

calcareous cement 1,500 

Very fine white to bluff dolomite, ferruginous stains 1, 520 

Buff to gray dolomite and fine gray biotitic sandstone— 1, 525 
Gray dolomite 1,534 

A number of good-sized springs, some of which are utilized by the 
distillery and others by the town, emerge on the east side of East 
Fork a mile or more north of town. The distillery springs are four 
in number and emerge from quicksand, although it seems probable 
that the water comes mainly from the " Clinton " limestone near its 
contact with the underlying Richmond formation. The water is 
piped by gravity to a receiving well at the distillery, from which it 
is pumped to the works as needed. About 50,000 gallons dailj^ is 
used from the springs, the remainder being taken from the creek. 
The water carries some iron and is very hard and seems to be becom- 
ing harder. (See pp. 204-205 for analysis.) 

The first public supply, derived from a large dug well near town, 
was installed in 1896. but soon failed. Connection was then made 
with the infiltration gallery of the distillery, a trench 120 feet long, 



HIGHLAND COUNTY. 



137 



15 feet wide, and 15 feet deep, located near town and subject to pollu- 
tion from surface drainage. A few years later it became necessary 
for the distillery to use the entire supply, and the town had to seek 
a new source, which was finally found in a spring north of town, not 
far from the distillery spring described above. The spring was dag 
out, cleaned, and inclosed, and the water was piped by gravity to a 
receiving cistern in town, from which it is pumped to the standpipe. 
Other data regarding the supply will be found in the table on page 52. 

WATER PROSPECTS. 

For the purpose of assisting the driller or well owner in determin- 
ing the underground water conditions in western Highland County 
the following table has been prepared : 



Underground-water conditions in Highland County. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Mate- 
rial. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water supply. 


Allensburg 

Bell 


Till... 
...do... 


Feet. 
40+ 

10 
10 
10 
25 

10 
10 

2 

1^ 

10 
20 
20 

100 
10 
10 

10 
10 

10 

10-45 

20 
20 
10 
100 
8 
10 

20 
10 

20 

8 
10 

8 
10 


Plenty... 


Richmond 

"Niagara" 

. .. do 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"Clinton" 

do 


SmaU. 

Usually plenty. 
Do. 


Berrysville 


- do . 




Bridges 


...do... 




do 


do 


Do. 


Buford 


...do... 




Richmond 

"Niagara" 

Richmond 

do 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 

"CUnton" 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


SmaU. 


Careytown 


...do... 
...do... 

...do... 
.. do. 




Usually plenty. 
Small. 




Dodsonville 


Fair 


Do. 


Fairfax . . . 


Moderate. 


"Niagara" 

Richmond 

"Niagara" 

.. do 


"CUnton" 

Richmond an d 
Maysville. 

"CUnton" 

do 


Usually plenty. 
SmaU. 




...do... 
...do... 


Falls ville 




Usually plenty. 
Do 


Folsom 


...do... 
...do... 

...do... 


Moderate. 


Gath 


Richmond 

"Niagara" 

do 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"Clinton" 

do 


SmaU. 


Highland 




Usually plenty. 
Do. 


Hillsboro 


.. do 






...do... 




Richmond 

"Niagara" 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 


SmaU. 


Leesburg. 

Littleton 


...do... 
.. do 


Plenty... 




Richmond 

"Niagara" 

Richmond 

do 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 

"Clinton" 

Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 
do 


Do 


Ludwick 


...do... 
...do-. 

do 




Usually plenty. 
Small. 

Do. 


Lynchburg 

Mowrystown 


Moderate - 


Needful .. 


. do 




... do 


do . . .. 


Do 


Nevin 


...do... 


Small 


do 


do 


Do. 


New Lexington.. 
Newmarket 


...do... 
...do... 
...do... 

...do... 
. do 




"Niagara" 

do 


"CUnton" 

do 


Usually plenty. 
Do. 


Fair 


Pricetown 

Pulse 


Plenty... 


Richmond 

do 


Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 
do 


SmaU. 
Do 


Russell 




"CUnton"(?) 

"Niagara" 

Richmond 

"Niagara" 

Richmond 

"Niagara" 

Richmond 


"Clinton," Rich- 
mond , and 
MaysviUe. 

"CUnton" 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"CUnton" 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"CUnton" 

Richmond and 
MaysviUe. 


Usually plenty. 
Do 


Samantha 


...do... 
...do... 

...do... 
...do... 




Strasburg 

Sugartree Ridge.. 
Taylorsville 


Moderate. 


SmaU. 
UsuaUy plenty. 


WillettviUe...... 

Winklp. 


...do... 
...do... 


Plenty... 


UsuaUy plenty. 
SmaU 









138 UNDERGEOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

MIAMI COUNTY (SOUTHERN). 

By M. L. Fuller. 

Only the southern third of Miami County (the part lying south of 
an east- west line drawn midway between Troy and Tippecanoe) falls 
within the area covered by the present report, and it is to this por- 
tion only that the following descriptions relate. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

Southern Miami County is essentially a flat or gently sloping 
plateau, standing from 800 to 1,000 feet above sea level, or about 400 
to 700 feet above the Ohio. It is cut in the eastern part by the valley 
of Honey Creek, in the center by the broad valley of the Miami, and 
in the western part by the sharp but narrow valleys of Stillwater 
River and its tributaries. The valley bottoms are usually 100 feet 
or more below the adjacent uplands, or 200 to 250 feet lower than 
the high, flat divides between the streams. Irregular morainal hills 
are strongly developed in the southeastern portion, especially along 
Honey Creek, but are not present over most of the remaining ter- 
ritory. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

The unconsolidated surface materials include the sandy and grav- 
elly alluvium of the valleys, the pebbly clay of the flat upland sur- 
faces, and the irregular morainal hills of sand, gravel, or pebbly clay 
of the Honey Creek region. The rock formations immediately un- 
derlying the surface deposits in southern Miami County are the 
"Niagara," "Clinton," and Richmond. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 
ALLUVIUM. 

The alluvial deposits are best developed in the valley of the 
Miami, in which they have a width varying from half a mile at the 
southern boundary of the county to 2^ miles a little north of Tippe- 
canoe. The thickness of the deposits is unknown, wells 65 feet in 
depth failing to reach rock even near the edge of the valley, but it 
is probably at least 100 feet. Along Stillwater River the alluvial 
deposits are generally less than half a mile in width and are prob- 
ably less than 50 feet in depth. In southern Miami County both 
rivers flow in relatively new channels, their older and wider valleys 
being buried by glacial drift. The old channel of the Miami is 
probably toward Mad River near Osborn, along the valley of the 
present Honey Creek, beneath whose irregular morainal hills thick 
deposits of old alluvium probably exist. A broad channel of the 



MIAMI COUNTY. 139 

Stillwater may extend through Kessler and Nashville and along 
Brush Creek, although wells in this vicinity generally strike rock 
near the surface. The location of the main channel and alluvial de- 
posits of the preglacial Stillwater, if this river then existed, has 
not been determined. Many smaller buried valleys and alluvial 
deposits doubtless occur but have not been traced owing to the lack 
of sufficient well borings. 

The alluvial deposits include gravel, sand, and silt, with perhaps 
in some places one or more beds of till. In the central portions of 
the valleys the sands and gravels usually predominate and are satu- 
rated with water, but toward the sides the deposits are in places 
finer and contain less water. Wells can almost everywhere obtain 
water by sinking to river level, but to insure abundant and safe sup- 
plies should be carried at least 20 feet deeper. In few wells is the 
water under much pressure, and artesian flows are not to be expected. 

TILL. 

Till is the surface material of the uplands and forms a mantle cov- 
ering the rock, except at a few points near the rivers, where natural 
outcrops and cliffs occur. In thickness it varies from 75 feet at places 
in the uplands to the vanishing point along the edges of the valleys. 
On the uplands it is in general thinnest in the east, where in many 
places it measures less than 25 feet, and thickest in the west, where 
it reaches a thickness of 50 to 75 feet at several points. (See PL III.) 
The variations in thickness are due in part to inequalities of the un- 
derlying rock surface and in part to more extensive accumulations 
toward the west. The till is prevailingly a clay mixed with pebbles 
and a few bowlders, but in places it is more or less gravelly and may 
even contain definite beds of sand or gravel. To a depth of 5 or 10 
feet it is commonly weathered to a yellowish brown, but at greater 
depths it is usually gray or bluish. The pebbly clay itself contains 
relatively small amounts of water but will usually yield enough for 
domestic use to dug wells. Much more water is found in the inter- 
bedded gravel or sand layers, which ordinarily furnish supplies ample 
for all farm purposes and in some places even sufficient for public 
supplies. Unfortunately such beds are absent in many places where 
the till is thin, and there wells have to enter the rock to get water, 
especially near the valleys, where the water readily drains from the 
deposits. Where the till is 30 feet or more in thickness, however, 
adequate supplies will usually be obtained from it. In some wells the 
pressure is sufficient to lift the water nearly or quite to the surface. 

MOBAINAL DEPOSITS. 

The morainal hills along Honey Creek con^st of great numbers of 
small but steep and very irregular mounds, composed of gravel and 



140 UNDERGEOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

sand and some till, interspersed with deep undrained kettle-like de- 
pressions. They commonly rise 60 or 70 feet above the valleys. 

The morainal deposits of southern Miami County are composed 
mainly of porous sands and gravels which permit the water to drain 
away to the nearest valley or to sink downward into the underlying 
deposit, which, in the Honey Creek region, is probably alluvium. 
Wells are generally sunk into this underlying formation at least to 
the level of the surrounding valleys before procuring satisfactory 
supplies, and there is rarely any difficulty in obtaining adequate 
amounts if this is done. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

" NIAGARA " LIMESTONE. 

The " Niagara " limestone is seen in several quarries along Ludlow 
Creek and, although in few places naturally exposed, appears to un- 
derlie the section south of the creek to the county boundary. Little, 
if any, " Niagara " is present between Stillwater Kiver and Brush 
Creek, but considerable areas of the formation probably occur on the 
higher uplands between these streams and the Miami and also east 
of the Miami. The entire thickness of the " Niagara " is not repre- 
sented in southern Miami County, there being in few places, if any- 
where, more than 50 feet of the formation remaining. Hussy ^ says 
that the lower part is shaly but gives no localities in the area where 
such shales exist, and none were seen or reported in the present field 
work. The rock in the main is a grayish or bluish granular to com- 
pact limestone, in places occurring in beds suitable for quarrying. 

The " Niagara " generally contains considerable water, especially 
where covered with thick drift, but in southern Miami County it has 
no great amount of drift over it and is itself very thin, the lower 
and non water-bearing portion being in many places the only part 
represented. At Brandt, south of Honey Creek, it is reported 
as yielding plenty of water to shallow wells, but at Phoneton, near 
the Miami, and in the area west of Stillwater River, only fair to 
moderate amounts are reported. On the whole, the " Niagara " in 
the area under consideration will yield only a fair supply to wells, 
many of them having to penetrate to the " Clinton " or even to the 
Richmond to procure the necessary amounts. However, the forma- 
tion, especially the lower portion, gives rise to many springs, some 
of which are sources of water for stock or for domestic use. 

" CLINTON " LIMESTONE. 

The " Clinton " is an irregularly bedded limestone, probably about 
35 feet in thickness and somewhat sandy in its lower part. It is 
readily distinguished by its pinkish color, by its granular or sandy 

1 Hussy, John, Geology of Miami County : Geol. Survey Ohio, vol. 3, 1874, pp. 468-481. 



MIAMI COUNTY. 141 

character, and by the cliffs to which it gives rise along the valleys. 
The steep bluffs which border practically the entire valleys of the 
Stillwater and Miami in the portion of the county under considera- 
tion, are capped by this resistant formation, over which the small 
tributaries plunge to the valleys below. (See PL VII, B.) On the 
uplands between the valleys the " Clinton " is usually covered by drift 
or by the " Niagara " limestone, and is in few places exposed. What 
is probably the " Clinton " limestone, however, outcrops at several 
points on the lower slopes of the upland south of Brown (Rex post 
office), on Honey Creek. 

The " Clinton " is the most important water-bearing formation in 
the county, being notable throughout the region for the great number 
of large springs issuing from it. These appear to come from the 
middle or upper part of the limestone, although a few emerge from 
its contact with the underlying shale of the Richmond formation, 
just below the cliffs along the rivers. One of the largest of these 
springs formerly furnished power for a mill but is now utilized as 
the public supply of Milton. Along the borders of the valleys only 
the lower part (which is below the level of the springs) is present, 
and even this is drained of its water by the deep valleys. Farther 
back from the streams the " Clinton " will probably afford good sup- 
plies to wells. 

RICHMOND FORMATION. 

The Richmond formation, consisting of thin alternating layers of 
blue shale and limestone, underlies the alluvium in the valleys of 
Miami and Stillwater rivers and Honey Creek and is to be seen 
below the cliffs formed by the " Clinton " limestone in the bluffs 
bordering the two rivers. In these localities the upper 20 or 25 feet 
is generally a blue shale, below which the characteristic shaly lime- 
stone occurs to the base of the exposures. About 75 feet of the beds 
occur above the river level at Milton and about 40 feet near Tippe- 
canoe. 

The Richmond is not an important water-bearing formation, owing 
to its large content of shale, which hinders' the circulation of the 
water. It carries, nevertheless, moderate amounts and yields sup- 
plies to a number of wells at Fidelity, Ludlow, West Milton, Pigeye, 
and other places where, because of its thinness or of its drainage by 
deep valleys, the " Clinton " is unavailable as a source of supply. A 
few springs emerge at the top of its upper shaly member just below 
the " Clinton " cliffs. 

NOTES BY TOWNS. 
TADMOR.i 

On the Kreitzer property, at the point where the National Road 
descends the bluff between Phoneton and Tadmor, a small spring 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



142 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

near the base of the " Clinton " limestone is utilized for operating a 
ram which lifts the water to the buildings on the bluff above. It is 
of interest as demonstrating the possibilities of obtaining fine sup- 
plies of spring water at the houses along the edge of the bluffs, a 
situation in which it is difficult to obtain water from wells. 

TIPPECANOE.i 

A deep well sunk at Tippecanoe about 25 years ago in a search 
for oil and gas. The " Birdseye " limestone was struck at 1,025 
feet, or about 180 feet below sea level, but no other data concerning 
the materials penetrated or the water encountered are available. 

The city is situated on the " Clinton " limestone, and previous to 
1897 obtained its water from private wells. Owing to the numerous 
fissures which permitted pollution to enter the wells, many became 
badly contaminated and the introduction of a public supply became 
imperative. This is obtained from wells averaging about 60 feet in 
depth, located on the flats of the Miami; although there are a few 
houses in the vicinity, there is little danger of pollution owing to the 
considerable depth (50 feet) to which the wells are carried below the 
water level. Since the installation of the public supply the private 
wells have been examined by the health officers at intervals and those 
found contaminated have been closed and the owners ordered to con- 
nect with the public supply. Other information regarding the water- 
works and supply will be found on page 52. 

WEST MILTON.i 

West Milton, like Tippecanoe, is situated on the outcrop of the 
"Clinton" limestone, the fissures of which allow more or less im- 
purities from the surface to penetrate to the wells. The unsatis- 
factory character of the well water, the cost of drilling, and the 
need of better fire protection led, a few years ago, to the installa- 
tion of the present water system, which obtains its supply from 
Haskett Spring, issuing from the upper part of the " Clinton " lime- 
stone about a mile west of town. The w^ater is conducted by a 
cemented pipe to a receiving well in the village, from which it is 
pumped to the standpipe. The supply appears to be safe and in 
every way superior to the water from the wells formerly used. 
Further particulars are given on page 52 and an analysis on pages 
204-205. 

Of the numerous springs in the vicinity of West Milton, Haskett 
Spring, which furnishes the public supply, is the most important. 
It emerges, as noted above, from the " Clinton " limestone. Its sur- 
plus water above that taken for the city supply formed, in August, 
1906, a stream 8 feet wide and 4 inches deep, flowing with a velocity 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



MONTGOMEKY COUNTY. 



143 



of 1 foot a second. By adding the equivalent volume to the 135,000 
gallons consumed by the city, a total yield of about 1,750,000 gallons 
daily is obtained. The stream from the spring formerly furnished 
power to a mill in the town. 



WATER PROSPECTS. 



The following summary of the underground water conditions will 
help to determine the prospects of obtaining supplies at the towns 
and villages in this county : 

Underground water conditions in southern Miami County. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest sur- 
face. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water 
supply. 


Brandt 


Till, mo- 
raine. 
do 


Feet. 
12 

20 

100+ 
75+ 

25 
50 
65 
20 

3 

35 

5-50 

0-10 

3 


Plenty.... 

Small 

Fair 

Moderate.. 

Small 

Moderate.. 

Small 

Moderate.. 

Small 

Fair 

Moderate.. 

Small 

Fair 


"Niagara" 

"Clinton" 

Richmond 

do 

"Clmton" 

"Niagara" 

"Clinton" 

"Niagara" 

"Clinton" 

"Niagara" 

"Clinton" 

do 

do 


"Niagara" 

Richmond 

do 

do 

do 

"Clinton" 

Richmond 

"Clinton" 

Richmond 

"Clinton" 

Richmond 

do 


Plenty. 
Small. 


Fidelity 


Ginghamsburg 


do 

Alluvium, 
moraine. 

Till 

do 


Do. 
Do. 


Kessler. 


Do. 


Laura . . 


Moderate. 




do 


Small. 


Phoneton 


Till, mo- 
raine. 

Till 

do 

Till, gravel. 

Till 

do 


Moderate. 


Pigeve ... 


Small. 


Potsdam 

Rex 


Moderate. 
Small. 


Tippecanoe 

West Milton 


Do. 


do 


Do. 











MONTGOMERY COUNTY. 
By M. L. Fuller. 



SURFACE FEATURES. 

To speak broadly, the surface of Montgomery County is a plateau, 
the plateau characteristics being especially pronounced in the north- 
west, where very extensive, nearly flat surfaces, broken only by shal- 
low valleys, are found at elevations of 950 to 1,050 feet. In the 
southern half of the county and in the portion bordering Miami 
Eiver in the eastern part the plateau character is less distinct, the 
upland level being broken by the deep valley of the Miami and by 
the shallower valleys and ravines of its tributaries, between which 
only relatively narrow-crested ridges remain. Some of these, how- 
ever, show flat surfaces, having an elevation of 870 to 950 feet, mark- 
ing the old plateau level that originally extended over the region. 
The valleys of many of the larger rivers are broad, that of the Miami 
being from 2 to 3 miles wide in places, although elsewhere, as a few 
miles northeast of Dayton and near Miamisburg, it is only a quar- 



144 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO,. 

ter to half a mile wide. Tributary valleys vary in width from 
a few feet to three- fourths of a mile or more, but some of them expand 
locally to 2 miles or so, for example. Twin Creek in the vicinity 
of Germantown. The valley sides rise from 100 to 200 feet above the 
bottoms in the southern part of the county, but in the main have 
moderate slopes and show few if any rock outcrops. Near the north- 
ern edge many of the valleys, although only about half as deep, are 
broader and are bordered by vertical cliffs, which are very character- 
istic features of Miami and Stillwater rivers in this region. The 
valleys slope considerably, descending from 775 feet in the north to 
675 feet in the south. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

ALLUVIUM. 

The alluvial deposits, as would be expected from the great width 
of the valleys, are very extensive in Montgomery County, ranging 
in width from about half a mile near Miamisburg to nearly 4 miles 
at the junction of Mad and Miami rivers near Dayton. The Still- 
water River deposits average three- fourths of a mile in width, those 
of Mad River between 2^ and 3 miles, and those of the smaller tribu- 
taries from a few feet to a quarter of a mile. The depth of the 
deposits is not known, few if any wells located near the center of the 
valleys having reached their bottom, though many wells from 50 to 
60 feet in depth have been sunk. At Dayton wells have gone 75 feet 
or more without having found the bottom, and at West Carrollton a 
well 175 feet deep in the alluvium is reported. It is not improbable 
that the average depth in the larger valleys is more than 100 feet. 
Where the streams are flowing in new channels, as is the Miami in the 
rock-walled valley at the north edge of the county, the depth of the 
alluvium is probably very much less, possibly not more than 30 feet. 
The alluvium consists of silt, sand, and gravel, with some included 
beds of blue pebbly clay or till. The upper 30 or 40 feet of it seems 
on the average to be somewhat finer and more silty than the deeper 
beds, in many of which sand or gravel predominates. Till is es- 
pecially likely to be encountered in the broader valleys, as in the 
Mad River and Miami bottoms in the vicinity of their junction near 
Dayton. In this locality many partly buried knolls of till project 
above the alluvium. 

Nearly all wells in the alluvial deposits find water at or slightly 
above the level of the streams. The deposits from the surface down 
to 30 or 40 feet are in many places more or less silty, but good water- 
bearing sands or gravels are generally present at depths of 40 to 60 



MONTGOMEKY COUNTY. 145 

feet and afford very large supplies of water. Here and there, how- 
ever, the silty deposits continue to greater depths, and some wells, 
especially those near the sides of valleys, may have to go down 60 
to 90 feet to get adequate supplies. As much as 400 gallons a minute 
is obtained b}^ some wells in the gravels. 

Like all waters in southwestern Ohio, those of the alluvium are 
hard. They are, however, perfectly pure and suitable for public 
supplies. The water is clear and free from sediment and is well 
adapted for paper manufacture, in which it is used at a large number 
of mills in the Miami Valley. 

TERRACE GRAVELS. 

Bordering the alluvial deposits at the valley sides at a number 
of points, especially along Mad and Miami rivers, are low terraces 
standing from 10 to 25 feet above the flood plains of the streams. 
They consist very largely of fine to medium gravel, from which 
the water drains quickly to the adjacent streams or sinks into the 
underlying formations. For this reason most wells must be carried 
at least to the level of the nearest stream before they can obtain 
adequate supplies. 

TILL. 

The till is a yellowish clay carrying some pebbles and a few bowl- 
ders and fragments of wood. Beneath its yellowish upper portion, 
which is generally 5 to 10 feet in thickness, the till grades downward 
into gray or blue clay. In the rougher southern portion of the 
county it is commonly thin, being in many places less than 25 feet 
thick. It is also thin in the eastern half of the count5^ especially 
along the edges of the Stillwater and Miami valleys, in which much 
bare rock shoAvs at the surface. Within short distances back from 
the bluffs, however, its thickness increases from 15 to 10 feet. The 
greatest thickness is in the western half of the county, where the 
drift is in few places less than 25 feet in depth and in many is 50 
feet or more. It is possible that in certain buried channels, as in 
the vicinity of Brookville, the drift may be considerably more than 
100 feet thick. Gravelly or sandy zones or definite beds of sand or 
gravel are not uncommon, especially in localities where the till is of 
considerable thickness. 

The clayey portion of the till contains considerable water, but 
yields it rather slowly. Dug wells, however, generally succeed in 
obtaining moderate supplies. Where gravelly beds are present water 
is much more abundant, and many driven and drilled wells obtain 
large quantities. The water is under pressure in many wells. It 
rises when encountered, but usually does not reach the surface. In 
49130°— wsp 259—12 10 



146 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

a few places, however, as in the vicinity of Brookville, the water is 
under sufficient head to produce flowing wells. 

MORAINAL DEPOSITS. 

Montgomery County is characterized by rather extensive morainal 
deposits, which in places, especially along the east side of Miami 
Eiver and the south side of Mad River, reach a thickness of 50 to 
100 feet. Generally, however, they are limited to low knolls and dis- 
connected ridges standing not more than 20 to 30 feet above the sur- 
rounding surface. The morainal deposits fall into several fairly 
well defined belts. One extends along the east side of the Mad 
and Miami valleys from the Greene County line southwestward to 
the south line of Miami County and along it to the southwest corner. 
Another less-pronounced belt extends from the Miami in the vicinity 
of West Carrollton westward through Farmersville to the county 
line. A third extends from the Miami in the northeastern portion 
of the county southwestward to the county line, passing just south 
of Brookville and north of Pyrmont. The deposits do not fall into 
definite belts, but are scattered irregularly over the general upland 
surface. The morainal deposits, where thickest, consist to a large 
extent of gravels and sands, but contain a few beds of pebbly clay or 
till. In some of the minor deposits till predominates. 

Where the morainal deposits consist entirely of sand or gravel they 
yield very little water to wells, owing to the ease with which they 
drain into depressions or into the underlying materials. In such 
places wells, in order to obtain satisfactory supplies, must penetrate 
to the level of the ground water in the adjacent lowlands. In some 
places, where layers of till or clay occur in the moraines, the water 
is prevented from draining away, small amounts being held in ir- 
regularities in the clay or till surfaces. Wells reaching such sur- 
faces may obtain supplies sufficient for ordinary domestic or farm 
purposes. (See fig. 8, p. 41.) Springs not uncommonly occur where 
the impervious layers come to the surface. In the lower and pre- 
dominantly clayey knolls the supplies are similar to those of the till, 
but the wells, being mostly on elevations, have to go somewhat deeper 
for supplies than on the flats. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

" NIAGARA " LIMESTONE. 

The " Niagara " limestone is found beneath the till in the northern 
and northwestern portions of the county and also on the flat crests 
of the high isolated hills representing plateau remnants in the south- 
eastern portion. Except in the north and northwest, however, the 



MONTGOMERY COUNTY. 147 

" Niagara " is generally of no great thickness, the few feet which re- 
mains being preserved because of the resistance to erosion and weath- 
ering of the underlying " Clinton " limestone. The thickness does 
not seem to exceed 50 feet and in many places is only 5 to 10 feet. 
At the base of the formation is a few inches of shale, over which 
lies 5 to 10 feet of limestone suitable for building purposes, known as 
the Dayton limeetone. Above the Dayton are other layers of more 
irregularly bedded limestone to a thickness of 30 or 35 feet. Some 
shale probably occurs in places between this and the underlying 
Dayton. The " Niagara " limestone is usually a gray or bluish 
granular rock containing a few small cavities, but in some places it 
is buff and brownish. 

The " Niagara " limestone, where overlain by the till, contains con- 
siderable water, which it readil}^ yields to dug wells. Owing to the 
drift covering, springs are not so common at the base of the forma- 
tion in Montgomery County as they are elsewhere. 

" CLINTON " LIMESTONE. 

The " Clinton " limestone underlies all the area in which the 
" Niagara " is found and extends considerably beyond the outcrop 
of that formation. Large areas occur between Mad and Miami and 
between Miami and Stillwater rivers, as well as west of Stillwater 
River to the county line, except perhaps beneath the valley of Wolf 
Creek. " Clinton " limestone also occurs beneath the " Niagara " on 
the high plateau remnants southeast of Dayton to the southeast cor- 
ner of the county. It varies in thickness from 30 feet in the north- 
ern portion of the county to 10 feet in the southeastern portion. The 
lower part is a calcareous sand, and the upper part is a semicrystal- 
line, in places almost marble-like limestone. Its color varies from 
nearly white, through gray to pink, yellow, and red. The pink or 
red color, although not predominating, can almost always be seen 
where any considerable body of the rock is exposed, and it assists 
in identifying the formation. The bedding is very irregular. 

The " Clinton " limestone contains much water and generally 
yields satisfactory supplies to wells, especially dug wells. It is prob- 
ably this limestone that yields the water of the public supply at 
Brookville, which, before the Avells were pumped, flowed at the sur- 
face. The lower part of the " Clinton " and also to some extent the 
upper crystalline part give rise to numerous springs, some of them 
of large volume. The streams formed by these springs may be seen 
flowing over the bare limestone surfaces and plunging over vertical 
cliffs at a number of places along the Stillwater (PI. VII, B^ p. 45). 



148 UNDEKGKOUND WATEKS OF SOUTHWESTEKN OHIO. 

EICHMOND AND MAYSVILLE FORMATIONS. 

The Richmond and Maysville formations underlie all the lowlands 
of Montgomery County and in the southern part of the county 
extend up the hillsides to the base of the " Clinton " at an altitude 
of nearly 900 feet. Owing to their northward dip, however, they 
reach an altitude of only about 800 feet near the northern border. 
They probably underlie most of the uplands up to a point about 2 
miles south of Brookville. The upper 6 to 20 feet is a reddish or 
yellowish shale, but below this shale thin layers of limestone and 
shale, generally from 2 to 10 inches in thickness, alternate down to 
the valley level. Probably somewhat over 200 feet of these beds is 
exposed in the county. 

Owing to the thinness of the limestone beds and the scarcity of 
solution passages, as well as the absence of porous layers, the Rich- 
mond and Maysville are not strong water-bearing formations. 
Where covered, however, by 10 to 20 feet of drift, which serves to 
hold and feed the water to the upper part of the series, fair supplies 
are obtained by many dug Avells. Few drilled wells in these forma- 
tions are successful. 

NOTES BY TOWNS. 
BROOKVILLE.i 

The public supply at Brookville has been installed only a few years 
and is not yet so generally used as it should be in view of its much 
greater safety compared with the average private well, especially the 
shallow-dug well. It is derived from four 80- foot wells sunk through 
a considerable thickness of clay and other material, shutting off pol- 
luting matter, into the underlying limestone. The water would flow 
at the surface if not pumped. Other particulars of the supply will 
be found on page 52. 

CHAUTAUaUA GROVE.1 

The Chautauqua Grove summer resort and camp-meeting grounds 
are supplied from six driven wells, sunk about 25 feet in the river 
alluvium. The water is used for drinking and other domestic pur- 
poses, supplying without difficulty the campers and visitors, who at 
times number nearly 5,000. It is pumped by a gasoline engine for 
flushing and other purposes. 

DAYTON.i 

Dayton is situated mainly upon the broad flats at the junction of 
Miami and Mad rivers, but the outskirts of the city rest on terraces 
somewhat above the flood plain, even extending up the slopes of the 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



MONTGOMEEY COUNTY. 149 

surrounding rock hills. The public water supply has been in use for 
many years and supplies by far the greater portion of the popula- 
tion, few private wells being used, except those at the large industrial 
establishments and those on the outskirts. 

Most of the wells now in use are in the lower part of the city and 
consist of 4 to 8 inch pipes driven 40 to TO feet to gravel beds in the 
soft alluvial deposits. Abundant supplies are nearly everywhere ob- 
tained, although where the sands are unusually fine or silty only 
moderate amounts may be found. On the hills shallow dug wells 
obtain fair supplies from the drift or upper part of the rock, but 
deep drilled wells are almost invariably failures, the Eichmond 
formation, which they penetrate, being almost destitute of water. 
One well on the hill above the town was carried to 800 feet without 
success. Additional data regarding the wells will be found on 
page 52 and analyses of the waters on pages 204r-205. 

Several wells were put down in search for oil and gas in 1886 and 
1887. One of these, located at the corner of Brown and Cemetery 
streets, afforded the following record : 

Record of deep well at Dayton^ 



Thick- 



Depth. 



[Drift] :.- 

Richmond, and Maysville formations : Blue limestone 

Maysville formation and Eden shale: Blue slate, dark at bottom . 
Point Pleasant formation : 

Sand(?) 

Limestone interstratifled with shale 

"Birdseye" limestone: 

White limestone 

Blue limestone 

Brown limestone 

Limestone and shale 

St. Peter sandstone (?): 

White sand 

White siliceous, calcareous, and majmesian rock 

Cambrian and Ordo^ician dolomite: White magnesian limestone 



Feet. 

40 

420 

415 

25 



10 
280 
120 

10 
250 
760 



Feet. 
40 
460 

875 

900 



1,010 
1,020 
1,300 
1,420 

1,430 
1,680 
2,440 



a Orton, Edward, GeoL Survey, Ohio, vol. 6, 1888, p. 286. Correlations by M. L. Fuller. 

Some water was found in the upper parts of the boring, the casing 
of which was carried to 425 feet. Salt water was struck in the 
"Birdseye" at 1,360 feet and in the St. Peter at 1,450 feet. The 
water rose within 200 feet of the surface from the lower bed. The 
top of the " Birdseye " is about 115 feet below sea level. Some gas 
was obtained. 

Another well sunk at the corner of First and Finlay streets re- 
ported 247 feet of unconsolidated deposits, mainly gravel. The first 
public supply at Dayton was installed in the city in 1869, the water 
being obtained from Mad River, but this supply was replaced in 
1887 by a system of wells driven 30 to 60 feet in the alluvium 



150 UNDERGEOUND WATEES OF SOUTH WESTEEK OHIO. 

bordering Mad Eiver, just above the city. In 1906 seventy-seven 
8-inch wells were in use, and seventeen had been abandoned. The 
wells extend along the river bank for 4,000 feet, the pumping station 
being near the middle. In 1906 a new supplementary system was 
about to be installed to serve the higher parts of the town and the 
residences on the surrounding hills. It was planned to obtain water 
from wells near the old plant and to raise it to the required level, 
200 feet above the station, by high-pressure pumps. No sewage enters 
Mad River above the wells, but it receives some water from straw- 
board works. Unless, however, the entire ground water of the 
vicinity is lowered 30 to 60 feet below the surface and the river 
water drawn down to the level of the bottom of the wells, a condi- 
tion not likely to result, there is little danger of pollution from the 
source mentioned. If, however, large quantities of sewage or other 
waste entered the valley from the sides it would be liable to work its 
way toward the river and contaminate the wells. If such contami- 
nation ever occurs the remedy will be to sink wells to 100 feet or 
more instead of 30 to 60 feet, as no pollution is likely to reach the 
greater depth. Further particulars of the public supplies will be 
found on page 52. 

The National Military Home, a few miles west of Dayton, has an 
independent water supply from sixteen 6-inch steam-blown wells 
(see p. 52), penetrating a gravel lying at the base of the drift at 
depths of 45 to 58 feet. The wells are IJ miles east of the home, and 
from them the water is pumped to a reservoir. Other particulars 
will be found on page 52. 

FARMERSVILLE.i 

Farmersville has 8 or 10 drilled wells, the supplies being obtained 
from sand and gravel beneath a bed of blue clay or till that underlies 
the surface morainal deposits. The wells are said to range from 78 
to 168 feet in depth. A field analysis of the water will be found on 
pages 206-207. 

GERMANTOWN.i 

Germantown is without a public water system, notwithstanding the 
fact that it is so situated that a supply could probably be procured 
from wells at a relatively small cost, the broad alluvial flats of Twin 
Creek, upon which the town is situated, carrying abundant water 
within a short distance of the surface. The wells should preferably 
be of the driven type and should be carried to a depth of not less than 
60 feet in order to be safe from pollution. The supply would prob- 
ably be of good quality and would be a great improvement over that 
afforded by the common shallow surface-water wells. The gain in 
convenience and in security against fire would also be factors of great 
importance. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



MONTGOMEKY COUNTY. 151 

MIAMISBURG.i 

The ground- water conditions are somewhat variable at Miamis- 
burg. Near the center of the valley most of the wells get abundant 
supplies from the alluvium, but near the base of the hills water is 
often difficult to obtain, owing to the more silty character of the de- 
posits and to the slight depth to rock. On one lot six unsuccessful 
attempts to procure water were made, although in the neighborhood 
all wells obtained water. West of the railroad most of the wells are 
driven, but east of it drilling must be resorted to. 

Two wells, one 1,300 feet and the other 800 feet in depth, were 
drilled during the oil boom, in 1887. Considerable volumes of gas 
were encountered, but not enough for permanent commercial pur- 
poses. In the deeper well a sulphurous brine was encountered in 
large quantity at the bottom, presumably in the St. Peter sandstone, 
rising within 300 feet of the surface. The record of the 800-foot well 
is as follows: 

Record of deep well at Miamishurg.^ 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Drift: Mainly gravel 

Richmond and Mays villa formations: 

Blue slate 

Lighter slate 

Eden shale: Dark shale, becoming black 

Point Pleasant formation: Limestone and shale . 



Feet. 
181 

260 
40 

220 
99 



Feet. 
181 

441 

481 
701 



o Orton, Edward, Geol. Survey, Ohio, vol. 6, 1888, p. 289. Correlations of formations are by the author 
of this report. 

The town of Miamisburg has recently installed a public water- 
works, the water being obtained from wells sunk in the alluvium 
near the base of the hills at the southeast edge of town. There 
are no buildings in the vicinity and no chance of pollution at the 
present time. The supply is claimed to be ample for the needs of 
the town, although the water at the point where the wells are located 
seems to be less abundant than in the wells in the center of the valley. 
If at any time the wells should fail and it should be necessary to seek 
a new locality, a spot located above rather than below the town and 
near the center of the valley rather than toward the side should be 
selected. Other particulars regarding the wells will be found on 
page 52. 

OAKWOOD.i 

Oakwood has a public supply derived from two flowing wells. It 
is extensively utilized, but a few private wells are still used. Other 
particulars will be found on page 52. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



152 UNDEEGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

TROTWOOD.i 

Trotwood is one of the smallest villages in the county having a 
public water supply, the installation following a destructive fire in 
1899. It is owned by a private stock company and obtains its supply 
from two 6-inch wells sunk to a bed of gravel below the till. The 
water from the wells, together with compressed air, is pumped by a 
gasoline engine into a horizontal steel tank, in which it is held under 
a pressure of 40 to 80 pounds. The water is used for extinguishing 
fires, sprinkling, and washing, but is not popular for drinking, owing 
to the length of time it stands in the tank. It appears, however, to 
be perfectly safe. Further statistics are given on page 52 and a 
partial analysis on pages 206-207. 

UNION.i 

Union is located on the outcrop of the " Clinton " limestone, only 
a thin covering of drift overlying the rock surface. Open wells, 
which generally go through the limestone into the underlying shale, 
commonly find moderate supplies, the limestone affording the water, 
which is stored in the lower part of the well in the impervious shales. 
Drilled wells are much less successful, as they draw mainly from the 
relatively dry shale. Wells of both kinds are liable to contamination 
by the entrance of polluting matter through fissures in the lime- 
stone. The record of one of the deeper wells is given below. A 
partial analysis of the water will be found on pages 206-207. 

Record of Ehy toell at Union. 



Thick- 



Depth. 



"Clinton" limestone: Limestone. . . 
Richmond formation: 

Blue clay 

Gray rock 

Blue clay and rock 

"Drift rock" (cavernous rock?) 

Blue clay 

Gray rock 



Feet. 
15 

7 
10 
35 
12 

6 



Feet. 
15 

22 
32 

. 67 
79 
85 
93 



WEST CARROLLTON.i 

The public waterworks at A¥est Carrollton was installed by the 
village in 1897, the water being obtained from wells driven 60 to 80 
feet in the sand beneath the lowlands along the Miami & Erie Canal 
and pumped by the G. H. Friend Paper & Tablet Co. into the mains. 
The well water is free from pollution and suitable for all domestic 
purposes. Additional particulars regarding the supply will be found 
on page 52 ; an analysis of the water is given on pages 206-207. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



MONTGOMEEY COUKTY. 



153 



WATER PROSPECTS. 



Underground water conditions in the villages and towns of Mont- 
gomery County are summarized in the following table : 

Underground-waier conditions in Montgomery County. 



Town. 



Surface deposits. 



Material. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Water 
supply. 



Rock formations. 



Rock nearest 
surface. 



Water-bearing 
rocks. 



Water supply. 



Air Hill 

Alexanders ville 



Amity . 



Till 

Alluvium . 



TiU. 



Arlington 

Bachman 

Beavertown... 



Bridgeport. 
Brookville . 
Centerville. 



..do. 
..do. 
..do- 



Alluvium. 

Till 

do 



Chambersburg 



do.. 



Clayton 

Crown Point... 

Dayton 

Dean 


do 

do 

Alluvium 

Till 


Dodson 


do 




do 


Ebenezer 


do 


EUerton 


Till, moraine. . 
Till 




do 


Farmersville... 
Fort McTCinlev. 


Till, moraine.. 
Till 



F u r m i 1 e 
House. 



Germantown. 



Gettersberg 

Happy Corners. 
Harshman 



....do 

Alluvium . . 



Till 

....do.-.. 
Alluvium . 



Hayes Store 
Kings ville. . . 



Till. 



.do- 



Kinsey 

Kreitzer Corner 



Lambertine - - 

Liberty 

Little York . . 
Miamisburg.. 
Mummaville - 
National Mill 
tary Home. 
New Lebanon 



--do. 
-.do. 



-.-.do.-, 
-..-do.-. 
...-do--. 
Alluvium 
...-do-.. 
Till 



Ao.. 



Feet. 
50 
30+ 



60 



Plenty. 



Deep. 
12 



30 



70+ 
35 



60 



50 



12 
140+ 



100+ 
12 



35 

35 

Deep. 



20 
100+ 



40 
20 
25 

60+ 
50+ 
60+ 



Plenty, 
-.do..- 
..do... 



...do. 
...do. 
--.do. 



-do. 
-do. 



Plenty. 



Plenty. 



"CUnton" (?) 
Richmond 

and Mays- 

ville. 
"Clinton" — 



"Niagara" 

do 

Richmond 

and Mays- 

ville. 

do 

"Niagara" 

"Clinton".--. 



Richmond 

and Mays- 

viUe. 
"Niagara" — 
Richmond 

and Mays- 

ville. 

do 

...-do 

"Niagara" — 
"Clinton"..-. 



"Clinton" (?) 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"Chnton," Rich- 
mond, and 
Maysville. 

"Clinton" 

do-. 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 

"Clinton" 

"Clinton," Rich- 
mond , and 

Maysville. 
Richmond and 
Maysville. 



"Clinton" 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 



Small. 



Plenty, 
.-do.-- 



.--do... 
...do... 



.do. 



Richmond 
and Ma,ys- 
ville. 

.---do 

"Clinton" 



--..do 

----do 

"Chnton" , 

"Clinton," Rich- 
mond , and 
Maysville. 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 



...-do 

Richmond, "Clin- 
ton." and Mays- 
ville. 



Moderate 



Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

-..-do 

"Chnton"--., 



Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

-...do 



Plenty. 



..do 

Moderate 



Plenty., 
-.do 



"Chnton" 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

"Chnton".... 

...-do 



Richmond and 
Maysville. 

--..do 

"Clinton," Rich- 
mond , and 
Maysville. 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 



....do 

"Chnton" 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 



Plenty. - 
Variable 
Plenty.. 



....do.. 

Richmond 

and Mays- 

viUe. 

....do 

..-.do 

..-.do 

-.-.do 

.-..do 

-■--.do 



"Clinton" 

"Chnton," Rich- 
mond. , and 
Maysville. 

"Clmton" 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

...-do 

-...do 

....do 

----do 

---.do 

.-..do 



60 ...do %..-.do 



...do. 



Usually plenty. 
Small. 



Moderate. 



Usually plenty. 

Do. 
Small. 



Do. 

Usually plenty. 
Moderate, 



Small. 



Usually plenty. 
Small. 



Do. 
Do. 
Usually plenty 
Do. 



SmaU. 



Do. 
Moderate. 



SmaU. 



Do. 
Moderate. 



Small. 



Do. 

Usually plenty. 
Small. 



Usually plenty. 
Moderate. 



Usually plenty. 
Small. 



Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do, 

Do. 



154 UNDEEGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

Underground-water conditions in Montgomery County — Continued. 





Surface deposits , 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water supply. 


Phillipburg 

Pyrmont 

St. Richmond.. 

Sixmile 

Spanker 

Sulphur Grove. 

Swanktown 

Tadmor 

Taylo r s b u r g 

(on Dry 

Run). 
Taylo r s b u r g 

(on Miami 

River). 
Trotwood 


Till 


Feet. 
30 
60 
60 

20 
16 
20 
60 

80+ 

40 

Deep. 

50 
3 

30 
40 
40 
60 

80+ 

25 


Fair 

Plenty... 
...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Fair 

Plenty... 

...do 

...do 

Small.... 

Moderate 
Plenty... 


"Niagara" 

do 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

do 

do 

"Niagara" 

do 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 
do 

do... 

do 

"Clinton".... 

"Niagara".... 

do 

do 


"Clinton" 

do 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 

do 

do 

"Clinton" 

do 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 

do 

do 

do 

"Clinton," Rich- 
mond, and 
Maysville. 

"Chnton" 

do 

do 


Usually plenty. 

Do. 
Small. 

Do. 
Do. 

Usually plenty. 

Do. 
Small. 

Do. 


do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Alluvium 

Till 


Alluvium 

Till 


Do. 
Do. 


Union 

Vandalia 


do 

. ...do 


Moderate. 
Usually plenty. 


Verona 

Vorhees 


do 

.....do 


Do. 
Do. 


Wengerlawn . . . 
West Carroll- 
ton. 

Woodbourn 


do 

Alluvium 

Till 


'Plenty'.!". 
Small 


do 

Richmond 
and Mays- 
ville. 

do 


do 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

do 


Do. 

Small. 

Do. 









PREBLE COUNTY. 

By Frederick G. Clapp. 

The following description applies to all of Preble County except 
the quarter lying north and northeast of Eaton, which could not be 
examined during the short time spent in the field. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of Preble County is rather diversified in its features, 
depending on the distribution of the glacial drift. Most of the 
northern portion consists of a plateau-like surface, having a maxi- 
mum elevation of about 1,250 feet along the western border and de- 
scending to about 1,050 feet on the eastern border. In the southern 
part of the county the surface is more diversified, the hills being 
somewhat dissected by streams, whereas the uplands in the northern 
part of the county are broad and flat and contain few streams. The 
creeks descend from shallow depressions on the uplands into deep 
and narrow valleys, with flood plains ranging from a few hundred 
feet to a quarter of a mile in width. The larger streams — Banta, 
Twin, Sevenmile, and Fourmile creeks^ — descend to elevations of 
700 to 800. feet on the southern and eastern borders of the county. 
The valley flats consist of alluvium. The county is crossed in a 
general northwest-southeast direction by three broad morainal ridges. 



PREBLE COUNTY. 155 



WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

ALLUVIUM. 



As the streams of Preble County are not large, their deposits are 
not very extensive. Twin, Banta, Sevenmile, and Fourmile creeks 
have flood plains reaching, in places, a width of a quarter of a mile 
or more. They are generally flat and low and lie between steep 
bordering hillsides. The surface portion of the alluvium is mostly 
fine, with sands and silts predominating, but well sections show that 
in many places coarse gravels lie below the surface. 

Except where it is very thin, the alluvium generally yields satis- 
factory water supplies to driven wells, especially in the deeper and 
broader valleys. At Eaton such Avells are sunk to a considerable 
depth in alluvium and furnish the public supply. 



TERRACE GRAVELS. 



Narrow deposits of coarse gravel border some of the principal 
streams, where they rise to heights of 50 to 100 feet above the bottom 
of the valley and form flat terraces. Water on these terraces is 
generally scanty, the supply draining out on the sides to the valleys. 



TILL. 



The greater portion of Preble County, as of other counties in the 
vicinity, is covered by pebbly clay or till of varying thickness, which 
is rather uneven in its distribution, in some places overlying gravels 
and in others underlying them. Generally, however, a considerable 
thickness of till overlies the bedrock of the region, and beds of till, 
generally called hardpan by the drillers, are penetrated in sinking 
deep wells. Along many creeks can be seen deep sections of till, in 
some places only a few feet in thickness and in others 100 feet or 
more thick. Where characteristic the till is hard and compact and 
contains many pebbles and in places large bowlders. The upper 
5 to 10 feet may be yellowed by oxidation, but the underlying portion 
is generally blue-gray. Over most of the county there are at least 
two beds of till, the one resting on bedrock being the more clayey, 
solid, and tough, and the one forming the surface or lying near it 
being generally looser, with a larger proportion of bowlders and sand. 

The water supplies of the till are, as a rule, not large. Wells 
sunk in it may obtain plenty of water during the greater part of the 
year, but the supply is liable to become exhausted in summer. The 
old-fashioned dug or open wells are most successful in the till, as 
driven wells are generally not of large enough diameter to form a 
sufficient reservoir for the water which seeps in from the surround- 
ing till. The open wells, however, are not so safe from pollution 
as those of other types. 



156 UNDEKGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

MORAINAL DEPOSITS AND OTTTWASH PLAINS. 

Under morainal deposits and outwash plains are included the de- 
posits which in general overlie the thicker or deeper of the two till 
sheets. They include, first, broad undulating morainal deposits of 
sand and gravel, which are easily recognizable by their surface fea- 
tures, and, second, broader and flatter deposits of sand and gravel, 
which in places stretch for many miles with a surface apparently 
as level as a floor, and which are made up of fairly horizontal beds 
of sands and gravel overlain only by superficial till a few feet 
in thickness. The thickness of these plains deposits is in places very 
great. They are believed to be best developed on the uplands within 
a few miles of Eaton. 

The true moraines of Preble County consist of three principal 
belts. The outermost, a mile or two wide, enters the county near its 
southeast corner, runs westward to Camden, crosses Sevenmile Creek, 
takes a north-northwesterly sweep, and strikes the northwest comer 
of the county north of New Paris. The second moraine is not so 
conspicuous and, except at its east end, is broader and flatter. It 
enters from Montgomery County south of West Alexandria, sweeps 
northward, passing between West Alexandria and Eaton, and at the 
northwest corner of the county merges with the outer moraine. The 
third line of moraines, which is still less conspicuous, crosses the 
northeast corner of the county northeast of Lewisburg. 

In the morainal deposits of the typical hilly type, such as those 
in the outer belt, it is necessary to drill to a considerable depth to 
reach water. On the inner moraines, however, and on the broad flat 
areas surrounding them, water has less chance to drain away and is 
encountered at several depths below the surface, the different water 
beds being known accordingly as the " first," " second," and " third." 
In the vicinity of Eaton and elsewhere flowing artesian wells have 
been obtained by short pipes driven into these deposits, and near 
West Alexandria deep-driven wells obtain flows from them. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

" NIAGARA " LIMESTONE. 

Probably more than half of the bedrock in Preble County consists 
of " Niagara " limestone. The " Niagara " constitutes the entire area 
north, northwest, and west of Eaton, extending southward almost 
uninterruptedly beyond Sugar Yalley, whence a strip of it, with an 
apparent width of more than a mile, stretches southward between 
Sevenmile and Fourmile Creeks nearly to the edge of Butler County, 
southeast of Morning Sun. Another arm of the " Niagara " lime- 
stone stretches southeastward from Eaton nearly to Winchester. In 
the southeast corner of the county there are only a few scattered 



PKEBLE COUNTY. 157 

patches of it. The " Niagara " covers most of the northeast quarter 
of the county but is not present along the valley south of Lewisburg. 

In the northwest corner of the county, on the uplands, the " Ni- 
agara " limestone may be over 100 feet in thickness, but where it out- 
crops in the southern part of the county it has in places a thickness 
of only a few feet, the rest of it having been eroded. 

The " Niagara " is quarried for building stone in a number of 
places, one of which is near a shallow creek about 2 miles northeast 
of Eaton. The most important quarries, however, are at New Paris, 
in the northwest corner of the county, where the workings are 30 or 
40 feet deep and the rock makes excellent building stone. 

The " Niagara " limestone probably contains more water than any 
other of the rock formations lying near the surface in Preble County. 
It is generally a bedded or massive gray to buff limestone. Some 
water is found in it by shallow wells, but the greatest amounts are 
generally obtained by deep wells which penetrate nearly to the top 
of the underlying " Clinton " limestone. The " Niagara " limestone 
contains a gxeat many irregular solution passages, through which 
water is flowing, and when these passages are tapped by the drill they 
yield a large amount of water. (See PI. V, ^.) 

" CLINTON " LIMESTONE. 

The " Clinton " limestone underlies the entire area in which the 
" Niagara " is found and extends somewhat beyond the outcrop of 
that formation. Owing to the thick, drift covering in Preble County, 
little of the " Clinton " is believed to be exposed, but it can be seen 
in a few places along the uplands west of Sevenmile Creek and prob- 
ably at other points. Owing to the scarcity of exposures and to the 
fact that in well records it is generally reported with the " Niagara " 
simply as " limestone," its thickness is not known with certainty, but 
it is believed to measure not over 50 feet. "Where characteristic, it 
consists of massive buff to pinkish, horizontally or cross bedded lime- 
stone, composed largely of minute shell fragments. 

Although the " Clinton " limestone can not be differentiated from 
the " Niagara " where penetrated by wells, the fact that many wells 
find water near the base of the material reported as limestone seems 
to indicate that the " Clinton " yields moderate amounts. Generally, 
how^ever, it acts as an impervious bed ; along its upper portion numer- 
ous springs issue from the " Niagara " limestone. 

RICHMOND AND MAYSVILLE FORMATION. 

The lowlands in southern Preble County, as far north as Fair- 
haven on Fourmile Creek, nearly to Eaton on Sevenmile Creek, and 
as far as Lewisburg on Twin Creek, consist of the Kichmond and 



158 UNDEKGROUND WATEES OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

Maysville formations, which form the bottoms of the valleys and ex- 
tend for considerable distances up the hillsides. In the southern part 
of the county these formations form many entire hills, except perhaps 
for a thin capping of " Clinton " and " Niagara " limestones. 

Owing to the fact that the county is so thickly covered by drift, 
little can be said of the lithologic character of the Kichmond and 
Maysville formations. Doubtless it is similar to that of these forma- 
tions as seen in Butler and other counties, where they consist of 1 to 
10-inch layers of interstratified shale and limestone. 

Owing to the thinness of the limestone beds and the consequent 
scarcity of solution passages, the Kichmond and Maysville formations 
contain only a moderate amount of water. They yield very little to 
shallow wells, and practically none to most drilled wells. Where 
water is found it is generally inferior in quality to that in the 
" Niagara " and " Clinton " limestones and in some wells is sulphurous 
or brackish. 

NOTES BY TOWNS. 
CAMDEN.i 

Three gas wells have been sunk by the town of Camden. One of 
them is 85 feet deep; the depths of the others are unknown. One 
well still yields gas, under 35 pounds pressure, which is used for 
running an engine and which was at one time piped all over the 
town. 

One of the gas boriijgs penetrated 180 feet of drift before reach- 
ing bedrock, showing that a deep buried valley extends northward 
from the Miami Valley and w^as formerly occupied by a stream of 
considerable size. 

CEDAR SPRINGS.i 

About a mile south of New Paris is the Cedar Springs Hotel, a 
popular summer resort on the New Paris and Westville branch of the 
Dayton & Western Electric Railroad. The Cedar Springs, several 
in number, are situated in the valley near this hotel. They are dug 
6 or 8 feet in the bottom of the valley near a small run. The water 
occurs in gravel underneath hardpan, and one of the springs extends 
into the "second-gravel" bed. The hardpan and gravel layers rise 
into the morainal hills in the opposite direction from the hotel, and 
for that reason there is no danger of pollution; moreover, excellent 
sanitary precautions are taken in the curbing of the springs. The 
springs, which are known individually as the Navahoe, Iron, Glycer- 
ine, and Cathartic springs, have been analyzed (see pp. 206-207), and 
the composition of the water seems to depend on whether it occurs in 
the " first " or " second " gravel. Around several of the springs there 
is a slight iron stain, due to the iron in the water. The volume of flow 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



PREBLE COUN^TY. 159 

can not be conveniently measured, but is estimated at 5 to 10 gallons 
a minute. The surroundings of the springs are thickly wooded. In 
addition to being used at the summer hotel, the water is bottled for 
shipment to a distance as "Navahoe water," though all of it does 
not come from Navahoe Spring. These springs have a history 
dating back to the days of the aborigines, and great medicinal value 
is claimed for them. 

EATON.i 

Public supply. — Eaton has a fair public supply, derived from 
drilled wells 6 inches in diameter, sunk on the flood plain of Seven- 
mile Creek west of the village within 50 rods of the pumping station. 
The system was installed in 1891. In all, ten wells have been sunk to 
depths of 60 to 100 feet, but only two are used. These are pumped 
with an air lift. A sample record is as follows : 

Record of driven well of the Eaton Waterworks. 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Soil 

Hardpan 

Coarse blue gravel. 



Feet. 



Feet. 
4 
59 
79 



This is believed to be an average record. Under the blue gravel is 
another bed of "hardpan," and bedrock is entered at depths of 
57J to 99 feet. Several of these wells found very little water on ac- 
count of the fine-grained nature of the sediments penetrated. The 
wells which are in use will sometimes overflow after standing several 
days without pumping. By pumping the two wells 18 hours a day 
an average of 120,000 gallons of water is obtained. The water is 
delivered by an air lift from the wells to a cistern at the pumping 
station and then pumped to a standpipe whose top is 150 feet above 
the station or 135 feet above Main Street. During the summer the 
supply is insufficient and it is necessary to stop lawn sprinkling, etc. 
For this reason it has been suggested that the mains be extended to 
some springs situated a short distance up the creek, l^he composition 
of the water is given on pages 206-207. 

In 1894 a 10-inch pipe-line was run 1,500 feet west from the pump- 
ing station to a spring at the foot of a blufi* across the creek. A^Hiile 
the surface was wooded plenty of water was obtained, but since much 
of the forest has been cut away the spring has failed and has been 
abandoned. Water was also drawn from two cisterns and 24 rods of 
tile at the base of the bluff, being obtained mostly from a bed of 
water-bearing gravel 4 feet thick which outcrops 14 feet below the 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



160 UNDERGEOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

top of the bluff. Only about one- tenth the original supply is now 
obtained. 

Flowing wells. — In the northeast corner of Eaton a number of 
wells bored with an auger in sand and gravel to depths of 25 to 35 
feet flow as " fountains." The wells were sunk about 1820 ^ and re- 
cently the flow in all of them has diminished greatly owing to the 
sinking of new Avells. The water has a temperature of 52° and con- 
tains iron, but it otherwise of good quality and is satisfactory to the 
residents in that part of town. The water, which will rise several 
feet above the surface, comes from gently inclined gravel beds in the 
morainal deposits which rise gradually toward the northwest. 

Drilled wells. — A number of drilled wells have been sunk at Eaton. 
Two of them, 186 and 326 feet deep and 8 inches in diameter, are 
situated at the plant of the Eastern Electric Light & Power & Ice 
Manufacturing Co. They obtained very little water, probably be- 
cause they were mostly in the Eichmond and Maysville formations. 
Rock was struck at 24 feet. 

Several wells in the village seem to furnish water of excellent 
quality. One of these is a dug well at the courthouse. 

Several attempts have been made to find oil and gas in the vicinity 
of Eaton About 1885 a deep well, sunk on the William Acherman 
lot, penetrated the " Birdseye " limestone and a bed of sandstone and 
obtained salt water. It is reported to have been about 1,600 feet 
deep and was cased for about 300 feet ; the record, however, has been 
lost. Another test well, about 1,200 feet deep, was put down at the 
electric-light plant, then owned by Josiah N. Robinson. Persons 
who were interested in the borings report that the " Birdseye " lime- 
stone dipped markedly from the Acherman well toward the well at 
the electric-light plant. 

Springs. — In the vicinity of Eaton there are a number of springs 
of considerable importance. One of them, situated at the picnic 
grounds about a mile southeast of the village, issues from the foot 
of a slope about 5 feet above a run in a shallow ravine with a flow 
estimated at about 3 gallons a minute. It is supposed to come from 
the " Niagara " limestone. 

Four miles northeast of Eaton, on the Lewisburg Pike, an enor- 
mous spring issues from drift deposits in a slight depression. The 
water bubbles up from sand with an estimated volume of at least 50 
gallons a minute. This is the largest spring known in the county. 

1 History of Preble County, Ohio, H. Z. Williams & Bro., 1881, p. 134. 



PKEBLE COUNTY. 161 

■*. 
LEWISBURG.i 

Lewisburg is situated on a gentle till slope, rising from Swamp 
Creek. The base of the " Niagara " limestone outcrops along the 
bluffs bordering the creek, but on the plain the rock is covered by 10 
to 20 feet of till. Most of the wells are the old-fashioned dug wells, 
but some of them are drilled. 

Most of the drilled wells yield water of good quality. Probably 
the deepest well in Lewisburg is that at the Handle ( ? ) factory. 
It is 101 feet deep and strikes limestone 15 feet from the surface. The 
water tastes very strongly of sulphur. It can not be exhausted with a 
steam pump. About a mile north of Lewisburg a well was drilled 
185 feet, nearly all in solid rock. In the surrounding country there 
are a number of drilled wells that are not so deep. 

A gas well drilled on the eastern border of the village to a depth 
of about 1,300 feet is reported to have struck the " Birdseye " lime- 
stone at 950 to 1,050 feet and to have found an abundance of salt 
water. A fine supply of water was struck about 300 feet from the 
surface and was used in drilling. A little gas was obtained from the 
shale and is still used, but none was found in the " Birdseye." 

NEW PARIS.i 

At New Paris rock outcrops at the surface, but its extremely 
irregular character is shown by the fact that about a mile north of 
the village a well is reported to have been sunk to a depth of 285 feet 
before striking rock. No water Avas found. Other deep wells in the 
drift show that there are deep gravel-filled valleys in this neighbor- 
hood which represent the former courses of the streams. It is prob- 
able that East Fork of Whitewater Creek once followed a course very 
different from its present one. 

C. W. Bloom, of New Paris, draws a small public supply from a 
dug well 17 feet deep in gravel below "hardpan." The well can 
be pumped at the rate of 125 gallons a minute and the water is of 
excellent quality. Analysis is given on pages 206-207. 

The largest limestone quarries in the northwestern part of the 
county are at New Paris, the most important one now in operation 
being that of Reinheimer Bros., near the south end of town. The 
"Niagara" limestone at this place is overlain by till ranging from 
a few inches to 4 feet in thickness. The limestone here is a fine- 
grained bluish-gray rock containing numerous layers of " flint rock" 
up to a foot in thickness and some flint nodules. The joints in the 
limestone are, in general, tightly closed. Two systems exist, one 
running east and west and the other north and south. The cracks 
are nearly A^ertical. Throughout the limestone many small solution 

1 Conditions in 1906, 
49130°— wsp 259—12 11 



162 UNDERGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

passages follow the joint cracks, forming channels for several 
springs of excellent quality, which issue from the rock. One flows 
from a solution cavity about a foot in diameter with an estimated 
volume of 2 or 3 gallons a minute. The most interesting spring is 
at the south end of the quarry, where (PL V, A, p. 36) a conspicuous 
solution channel a few inches in diameter follows the rock vein 
along the joint crack for several rods. During the quarrying 
operations within the last few years the spring has been traced 
downward into the hill for a distance of about 500 feet. The 
volume of flow is now about 7 gallons a minute but is diminish- 
ing as the quarrying operations progress. The Avater is of excellent 
quality and is used by the workmen for drinking. The measured 
temperature is 52°. Analyses of springs in this quarry are given on 
pages 206-207. These springs and solution channels furnish a clue to 
the probable mode of occurrence of well water in limestone at great 
depths below the surface and show that wells sunk in the *•' Niagara " 
limestone may be expected to find moderate or even large amounts 
of water of good quality by striking one of these solution channels. 
If, on the other hand, as sometimes happens, they do not chance to 
strike a vein of water, the well will be unsuccessful. 

WEST ALEXANDRIA.! 

West Alexandria has a public supply owned by the village. The 
system consists of four drilled wells 134 feet in depth. A record 
of the strata passed through is as follows : 

Section of deep wells of West Alexandria toaterworl^s. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Clay (till containing numerous large bowlders) . 

Gravel (containing water) 

Blue clay 

Gravel (containing water) 

Hardpan 

Quicksand 

Gravel (containing water) 



Feet. 
16 
13 
31 

19 

49 



Feet. 
16 
29 
60 
72 
121 
128 
134 



The water used comes from the gravel bed at the bottom. The 
well of which the record is given above was the last to be installed 
in the system and was drilled in January, 1905. Originally the town 
had wells 65 and 95 feet deep, but enough water was not obtained 
from them, and drilling Avas carried into the " third gravel." The 
water in the " second gravel," which was originally used, rose nearly 
to the surface. The actual yield is not known, but nearly 1,000 gal- 
lons a minute has been obtained without lowering the water over 4 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



FEEBLE COUNTY. 163 

feet from the surface. The amount pumped ordinarily is reported as 
about 35 gallons a minute. The wells are arranged in the form of a 
square 400 feet on a side. From them the water is pumped to a 
standpipe 119 feet above the pumping station and 100 feet above the 
ground. The system is reported very satisfactory. 

Several flowing wells have been obtained in West Alexandria. 
The best three were sunk for S. S. Black near the south end of the 
village. Two of them were 112 and 121 feet deep, but only one of 
these is now in use, the second well being drilled when the first one 
was accidentally ruined. This well is the finest flowing well in the 
county, and Mr. Black uses it to supply a fountain which stands In 
his front yard and a fishpond covering half an acre. The water is 
also used for all domestic purposes. It will rise unconfined 14 feet 
above the surface. The temperature is 52°. Mr. Black's third well 
is 112 feet deep and supplies a canning factory. The water will rise 
12 feet from the surface and is piped to the second story of the fac- 
tory. The water in these wells comes from some of the deeper 
gravels of morainal deposits and probably owes its head to a long 
descent along beds dipping from the north or northwest. 

WEST ELKTON.i 

True flowing wells are not known in the vicinity of West Elkton, 
but at the west end of the village Elijah Mendenhall has a dug well 
IG feet in depth, from which the water flows in a constant stream 
through a pipe connected with the well 4 feet below the surface. 
This water is very high in iron. (See analysis, pp. 206-207.) The 
morainal hill on the side of which this well is situated rises about 
40 feet higher within 400 feet north of the well, and the head is be- 
lieved to be due to the presence of an inclined gravel bed. 

WEST MANCHESTER.! 

West Manchester is situated on a very flat till plain several miles 
broad. Part of the residents use the public supply, but some still 
use dug wells 20 to 40 feet in depth. Many of these are in poor loca- 
tions and the sanitary quality of their water is doubtful. The public 
supply is excellent and should be more widely used. 

Data regarding the public supply are given on page 52. The 
waterworks, which were installed in 1903^, are situated on the 
plain at the southeast corner of the village and consist of a small 
pumping station and three drilled wells. The water is pumped from 
the wells each morning into two large tanks, 36 by 8 feet. The tanks 
are filled about half full, compressing the air above, and the water is 
distributed by the consequent pressure, which ranges from 25 to 55 
pounds. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



164 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



Before the waterworks were installed a test well was sunk to a 
depth of 150 feet. It is reported to have struck rock at 70 to 80 feet, 
but some of the inhabitants doubt whether rock was really struck. 
As no water was found below 65 feet the well was abandoned below 
that depth. 

The water in the wells stands about 10 feet below the surface with- 
out pumping and can not be pumped down below 23 feet. 

WATER PROSPECTS. 

The underground-water conditions in the several cities and villages 
in Preble County are summarized in the following table : 

Underground water conddtions m Prehle County. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water bearing 
rocks. 


Water supply. 


Camden 

Campbellstown 
Eaton 


Alluvium 

Moraine 


Feet. 
Deep. 


Plenty... 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"Niagara" 

do 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"Niagara" 

do 

do 


Small. 

Plenty. 
Do 


Moraine and 
till. 

Moraine 

Till 


40 to 

deep. 

80-100 

0-20 

15 


Plenty . . . 


Eldorado 


..do 


do 


Do 


Euphemia 

Fairhaven 

Gettysburg 

Greenbush 


Moder- 
ate. 
...do 


do 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 
"Niagara" 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 
do 


"Niagara" and 
"Clinton." 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"Niagara" 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 
do . . 


Do. 


Alluvium 

Moraine and 

till. 
Till 


Small. 

Plenty. 

Small. 


6 


Moder- 
ate. 


Ingomar 

Lewisburg 

Morning Sun... 

Oklahoma. . — 
New Hope 

New Lexington 

New Paris 

Sugar Valley 


Moraine 


Do. 


Till 


10-20 

Shal- 
low. 
+30 


Moder- 
ate. 
...do 

Plenty... 


"Niagara" 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"Niagara" 

do 


"Niagara" and 
"Clinton." 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"Niagara" 

do 


Plenty. 

Small. 

Plenty. 
Do. 


do 

do 

Moraine and 

till. 
Till 






Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"Niagara" 

do 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

"Niagara" 

do 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 
"Clinton "(?).... 

"Niagara" 

do 


Small. 


Moraine 

. do.. . 


25 


Plenty... 


Plenty. 
Do. 


West Alexan- 
dria. 
WestElkton... 

West Florence 


do 

Till and Mo- 
raine. 
Moraine 


Deep 
10 


Plenty... 

M d e r- 
ate. 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
"Clinton" (?)... 

"Niagara" 

do 

do 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 


Small. 
Plenty. 
Do. 


West Manches- 


Till 


-80? 

-1-40 

10 


Plenty... 

...do 

M d e r- 
ate. 


Do. 


ter. 
WestSonora... 

Winchester 


Till and Mo- 
raine. 
Till 


do 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 


Do. 

Small. 


(Gratis post 
office). 







WARREN COUNTY. 

By M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 



Warren County is essentially a plateau, standing for the most part 
800 to 900 feet above sea level but rising at some points to 1,000 



WAREEN COUNTY. 165 

feet or over. The plateau is divided into eastern and western parts 
by the deep valley of the Little Miami, the bottom of which is 200 
feet or more below the upland surface. The plateau is also cut at 
the extreme northwest corner by the valleys of the Miami and the 
numerous tributaries to the two rivers, as well as by certain other 
valleys not now occupied by streams of any size. The uplands are 
much less cut by ravines than those in counties nearer the Ohio, the 
plateau surface being fiat or gently rolling throughout the greater 
part of its extent. Among the valleys formed by streams other than 
those now occupying them may be mentioned that extending from 
the Miami near Middletown southeastward to the Little Miami at 
Deerfield and that leaving the Little Miami near Freeport and pass- 
ing southwestward past Lebanon and thence southward to the main 
valley at Deerfield. These appear to have been drainage channels 
carrying glacial waters set free by the melting of the ice sheet when 
it occupied the region a short distance to the north (PL II, p. 24). 

Other surface features of importance are the morainal hills, the 
most pronounced belt of which crosses the county from the northeast 
to the southwest corner, passing Lebanon. Another belt starts near 
Little Miami Eiver at Waynesville and extends southeastward into 
Clinton County. These hills are best developed in the valleys, where 
they have an elevation of 50 to 100 feet above the surrounding bot- 
toms. On the uplands they are far less conspicuous, few of them 
being over 20 feet in height. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

The water-bearing beds of Warren County include, among the 
surface deposits, alluvium, till, and moraines, and among the rock 
formations the " Niagara," " Clinton," Richmond, and Maysville 
formations. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 
ALLUVIUM. 

The alluvial deposits in Warren County are extensive, occurring 
in the valleys of both the present streams and the old glacial 
streams. Of the recent deposits those of Miami and Little Miami 
Rivers are the most extensive, the alluvial plain of the former hav- 
ing a width of 2 miles or more in places and that of the latter a width 
of one-half to three-fourths of a mile. Considerable alluvium is 
also found in the valleys of Todds Fork and some of the minor 
streams. The deposits of glacial alluvium of the two valleys men- 
tioned in the preceding section also reach a considerable width, espe- 
cially in the valley connecting the Miami and Little Miami. 



166 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

The alluvium of the Little Miami is prevailingly sandy or gravelly 
even near the surface, doubtless owing to considerable velocity of the 
waters during the excavation of the narrow gorge. In the valley 
of the Miami the alluvium includes more silt, especially in its upper 
portion, many wells having to be sunk 40 feet or more to procure sup- 
plies. Some till appears either to be included with or to underlie 
the older deposits of Miami River and also those in the two glacial 
valleys mentioned. 

The sandy and gravelly alluvium of the Little Miami and of some 
of the other streams is in places very extensive and affords abundant 
water to wells from 40 to 60 feet in depth. On the Miami, also, 
water is obtained in abundance, although some silt is present and 
w^ells are not so uniformly successful, at least at shallow depths, as 
on the Little Miami. The same is true to a still greater extent in 
the old valley connecting the two streams and in the Lebanon cut-off 
of the Little Miami. 

LOESS. 

South of a line stretching from the northeastern to the southwest- 
ern corner of the county the surface drift is much older than in the 
deposits to the north, belonging to an earlier glacial stage. This 
older drift is covered throughout by a thin sheet, ranging from a few 
inches to several feet in thickness, of a bluish or brownish loamy silt 
known as loess. Owing to its thinness it is of no importance as a 
water-bearing formation in Warren County, but it assists in collect- 
ing the rainfall and in feeding water to the underlying till and rock. 

TILL. 

The pebbly clay or till varies in color from yellowish or brownish 
near the surface to blue or gray at depths of 5 or 10 feet or more. 
It contains many small pebbles and a few bowlders. Its thickness is 
usually under 25 feet and in some places under 10 feet, but it seems to 
be considerably thicker at points near the eastern border of the 
county, possibly reaching 100 feet or more in the vicinity of Todds 
Fork. Here and there, even on the plateau, the rock is almost at the 
surface, some wells encountering it at less than 10 feet. 

The thin till is of little importance as a water-bearing formation, 
but that from 15 to 25 feet thick absorbs considerable quantities, 
which it supplies to shallow dug wells. The till is also important in 
absorbing and retaining water falling upon the surface and feeding 
it to the underlying rocks. 

MOEAINAL DEPOSITS. 

The morainal deposits, which lie in a belt stretching from the 
northeast to the southwest corner of the county, reach their greatest 
development in the valleys, in some of which they have a thickness 



WAEEEN COUNTY. 167 

of 100 feet. Where conspicuously developed the moraines seem to be 
composed largely of sand and gravel, from which the water rapidly 
drains away to the near-by valleys or sinks to the underlying forma- 
tions. For this reason wells almost never obtain supplies in the 
gravelly moraines, at least not until a depth equivalent to that of 
the general water level in the vicinity is reached. However, where 
the till is mixed with the gravel the downward passage of the water 
may be obstructed and accumulations take place in irregularities of 
its surface. Some wells sunk at such points procure water, but the 
supplies are generally uncertain. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

" NIAGABA " LIMESTONE. 

Very little " Niagara " limestone is found in Warren County, the 
total thickness exposed being not over 50 feet and the area only a 
few square miles even where it is most extensively developed in the 
region northeast of Springboro, not far from the north line of the 
county. The lower part of the formation is a bedded limestone suit- 
able for building (Dayton limestone) but only a few feet thick. 
Above this comes a bed of shale, which is in turn overlain by lime- 
stone making up the remainder of the 50 feet. 

The " Niagara ** limestone is found in so small an area that it is 
unimportant as a water-bearing formation in Warren County, 
although it contains considerable water and yields moderate supplies 
to the open wells that penetrate it. 

" CLINTON " LIMESTONE. 

In Warren County the " Clinton " limestone is only 15 or 20 feet 
thick and consists of a lower calcareous sand and an upper pinkish 
semicrystalline limestone. It underlies the "Niagara" in the hill- 
tops northeast of Springboro and caps small hills a few miles north 
of Todds Fork on the eastern line of the county. Southeast of Free- 
port about three-fourths of an acre of " Clinton " overlies the drift, 
appearing to have been moved from its original position. 

The " Clinton " outcrops, except that northeast of Springboro, are 
too small to contain much water and are so deeply covered by drift 
as to be unavailable. It is probable that northeast of Springboro, 
however, the formation carries considerable water which it yields to 
wells penetrating it. Some springs occur near its base, but, owing to 
the scanty outcrops of the formation, these are of little importance. 

RICHMOND AND MAYSVILLE FORMATIONS. 

The Richmond and Maysville formations consist of a shaly layer 
several feet in thickness at the top and alterations of thin limestone 
and shale in the remaining portion. About 400 feet of the forma- 
tions is exposed in the county, and this seems to be nearly their en- 



168 UNDERGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

tire thickness, for the underlying Eden shale appears beneath them 
not far from the south line of the county. The two formations un- 
derlie the entire county, except for the small patches of " Niagara " 
and " Clinton " described above. 

Where either the alluvium or the " Clinton " limestone is available 
it constitutes the principal source of supply, but elsewhere in the 
county shallow wells are obliged to rely mainly on the Richmond and 
Maysville formations. Owing to the covering of drift, which serves 
as a feeder to these formations, moderate amounts of water are con- 
centrated in their upper weathered portion and furnish fair supplies 
to open wells. Few drilled wells get water from the Richmond and 
Maysville formations in Warren County. 

NOTES BY TOWNS. 
FRANKLIN. 1 

In the central and northern parts of Franklin an abundance of 
water can usually be obtained from gravel beds in the alluvium at 
depths of 20 to 175 feet, the largest supplies generally being found 
at 60 and 80 feet. At the south end of the town the alluvium valley 
filling is apparently much thinner, wells soon reaching a till or clay 
in which there is little water, or entering dry rock. Most wells in 
this part of town have been failures. 

The wells from which Franklin originally obtained its supply were 
located in the vicinity of the Franklin Mills, near the side of the 
valley, but later the mill wells withdrew so much water that the 
supply became insufficient and new wells were sunk by the town 
near the river on the opposite side from the town. These wells are 
a little more than 60 feet in depth^ are so situated as to be free from 
all danger of pollution, and appear to yield enough for all ordinary 
demands. Further particulars are given on page 62. 

KINGS MILLS.i 

Kings Mills consists of the works of the Peters Cartridge Co. and 
the K. P. Co., located in the valley of the Little Miami, and of a 
small but neat and well-kept town on the plateau above. The resi- 
dents of the older part of the village mainly use dug wells 20 tx) 40 
feet in depth, sunk through blue clay or till to the top of the rock. 
In the newer part of town drilled wells have been substituted because 
they can be sunk more quickly and cheaply and are much safer. 
They are said to go down to the rock, which they reach at depths 
similar to those in the old part of town. One well was drilled to 
160 feet, and several to depths of 50 or 60 feet, but generally without 
material increase of supply. In some the water found in the upper 
part was lost through "gravel" (crevices?) farther down. An 
analysis of the water from the well at the Homestead Hotel is given 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



WAEEEN COUNTY. 



169 



on pages 206-207. In the valley several large springs occur, one of 
them yielding, it is estimated, nearly 35,000 gallons daily. 

The town has a public supply for extinguishing fires, the water 
being taken from the river. 

LEBANON.i 

Two wells were sunk at Lebanon during the oil and gas boom in 
1887. The first, which reached a depth of 1,300 feet, obtained large 
quantities of salt Avater near the bottom, but no oil nor gas in paying 
quantities. Chalybeate water was encountered in the drift gravels. 
The second well, sunk in the valley of Turtle Creek, gave the fol- 
lowing record : 

Record of deep well at Lebanon. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Drift: Maialy gravel and sand 

MaysvUle formation: Blue limestone and shale 

Eden shale and Point Pleasant formation: Dark shale and limestone 
* ' Birdseye" limestone: Hard white limestone 



Feet. 

256 

244 

162 

38 



Feet. 
256 
500 
662 
700 



A public supply was installed by Lebanon in 1896, the water being 
obtained from a number of wells driven from 96 to 101 feet through 
alernations of clay, sand, and gravel on low ground near a small 
tributary of Turtle Creek. The water flows feebly at the surface, 
and is siphoned to a receiving well, from which it is pumped to the 
standpipe. Other information concerning the supply will be found 
on page 52. It appears to be safe and suitable for all domestic uses. 
A partial analysis will be found on pages 206-207. 

MASON.i 

Two deep wells, the second completed late in 1906, have been 
drilled for oil and gas at Mason. The first, sunk a quarter of a mile 
north of town, had approximately the following record : 

Record of deep well at Mason. 





Thick- 
ness, 


Depth. 


Drift: 

Clay, till, and quicksand 


Feet. 
100 
10 

555 
155 

5a 

2 


Feet. 
100 


Blue clav ... 


110 


Richmond, Maysville, and Eden formations: Alternating layers of bluish limestone and 
shale . . . 


665 


Point Pleasant formation: Dark shales and limestone 


720 


* ' Birdseye" limestone: 
Limestone . . 


770 


Blue mud 


772 







The record of the second well was substantially the same as that 
of the first. Some strong pockets of gas were encountered, but they 



1 Conditions in 1906. 



170 UNDERGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

soon blew off. A little salt water was obtained in both wells. In the 
new well, a mile southwest of town, flowing water was obtained from 
a sandy bed in the till at about 85 feet. An analysis of this water 
appears on pages 206-207. 

MORROW.i 

Although a town of considerable size, Morrow has no public water 
supply, doubtless because of the accessibility of Little Miami River 
in case of fire. Most of the people formerly depended on dug wells, 
but many of these were filled a few years ago by material washed 
in during a flood and have been replaced by wells driven in the 
fillings of the old wells. Many entirely new driven wells have also 
been sunk and a few drilled wells put down. Owing to the situa- 
tion of the town at the base of a bluff and the movement of the 
ground water toward the river there is considerable danger that 
the shallower wells may become polluted, especially along the edge 
of the valley. It is believed that wells sunk near the center of the 
valley at a point above the town would afford a safer and more satis- 
factory supply than the present shallow wells. 

MURDOCK.i 

A deep well was sunk many years ago for oil and gas in a ravine 
not far from Murdock. A strong brine, utilized at one time in the 
manufacture of salt, was obtained, but neither oil nor gas nor any 
large amount of fresh water w^as found. 

SPRINGBORO.i 

The spring emerging from the drift near Springboro is of interest 
as being, according to reports, one of the largest in this part of Ohio. 
It was formerly used as a source of water power for a flouring mill 
and woolen factory. 

WAYNESVILLE.i 

The public supply of Waynesville was installed in 1900-1901, the 
water being obtained from driven wells sunk at the upper edge of 
the Little Miami flat south of the village. The w^ells are about 40 
feet in depth and penetrated a succession of clays, sands, and gravels, 
stopping in a gravel resting on top of the underlying rock. The 
wells are so situated as to be free from pollution and are to be pre- 
ferred to the private wells, especially the shallow open wells in the 
limestone and shale. Additional data regarding the supply will be 
found on page 52. 

1 Conditions in 1906. 



WARREN COUNTY. 
WATER PROSPECTS. 



171 



The underground-water conditions in the towns and villages of 
AVarren County are indicated in the table below : 

Underground water conditions in Warren County. 





Surface deposits. 


Rock formations. 


Town. 


Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Water 
supply. 


Rock nearest 
surface. 


Water-bearing 
rocks. 


Water 
supply. 


Blackhawk 


Till 


Feet. 
15 

15 
15 
15 


Moderate . 
..do 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
... do 


Small 


Blue Ball 


do 

do 


Do 


Butlerville 


...do 


do 


do 


Do. 


Camargo 


do 


...do 

Plenty 


do 


... .do 


Do. 


Camp Hagerman. 
Carlisle 


Alluvium 


do 


do 


Do 


do 


65+ 

30+ 

15 

15 

25 


...do 


do 


do . 


Do. 


Corwin 


do 


do 


do 


do 


Do 




Till 


Moderate. 

...do 

...do 

Plenty . 


do 

do 


do 




Dodds 


do 

do 

Alluvium . . 


Do. 


Edwardsvllle 


do 


Do. 


Fort Ancient. . . 


do ... 


do 


Do. 


Foster 


Alluvium, 
talus. 

Alluvium 

Till, moraine.. 
Till 


40-120+ 
25 
18 
20 
50+ 
25 
20 
10 


...do 

Fair 


.....do........... 


do 


Do. 


Franklin 


do 


do 


Do. 


Harveysburg 

Hopkinsville 

Kings Mills 


Moderate. . 
Very small. 
Plenty . 


do 


. .do 


Do. 


do 

do 


do 

.. .do 


Do. 


.do... . 


Do. 


Lebanon 


Till, alluvium. 
Moraine, tiU... 
Till 


Moderate . 
...do 


do 


do 


Do. 


Leeland 


do 


.do... 


Do. 


Level 


...do 

Small 

Moderate. . 

...do 


do 

"Clinton" (?) 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


do 

"Clinton" (?) 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 


Do. 


Lytle 


do 


U s u ally 


Maineville 


Alluvium 


plenty. 
Small. 




Till, moraine.. 
TiU 


30 
12 
10 


Do. 


Merrittstown 


...do 

Plenty.... 
do 


do 

do 

do 

do 


do 

do 

do 


Do. 


Middleboro 

Morrow 


do 

Alluvium 


Do. 
Do. 


Mount Holly 


... .do 




...do 


do 


Do. 


Murdoch 


Till 


25 


Moderate . 
Plenty 


do 

do 


do 

do 


Do. 






Do. 


Oregonia 

Pekin 


do 

Till 


25+ 

15 

16 


...do 

Fair 


do 

do 


do 


Do. 


do 


Do. 


Pleasant Plain 


do 

do 


Plenty 


do 


do 


Do. 




Moderate . 
do 


do 


do 


Do. 


Ridgeville 


do 


15 
25 
15 
20 


do 


do 


DOs 




do 


Fair 


do 


do 


Do. 


Rossbiirg 


do 


do 


do 


do 


Do. 


Socialville 

South Lebanon 


Moraine, tin... 
Alluvium 


Moderate . 
Plenty 


do 

do 


'do 

do 


Do. 
Do. 


Springboro 


Till . 


15 
10 

Deep. 


Small 

Fair 


do 

do 


do 

do . 


Do. 


Twentymile 

Stand. 
Union 


do 

Till,aUuvium. 


Do. 


Plenty 


do 


do 


Do. 


Waynesville 

Wellman 


...do 


do 


do 


Do. 


Till 


20 
30 


do 


do 


do 


Do. 




.. ..do 


Moderate . 


do 


do 


Do. 













CHEMICAL CHAEACTER OF THE WATERS OF SOUTH- 
WESTERN OHIO. 



By R. B. Dole. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The purpose of the following discussion is to suggest standards 
that may assist intelligent study of the analytical data and may 
show the broad general relations with respect to quality between the 
wells and other sources of supply in southwestern Ohio and in other 
regions. The methods of testing the waters are briefly outlined, the 
chief uses of water reviewed, and the qualities peculiar to waters of 
each class discussed. In conclusion a brief summary of the general 
characteristics of the waters of the area is presented. Discussion of 
individual waters is not attempted, the interest in these being too 
local to merit space here. 

ANALYTICAL RESULTS. 

Many analyses quoted in the succeeding pages were made by indus- 
trial chemists, chiefly to determine the value of the waters as sources 
of railroad supply. Such estimates are usually made in accordance 
with accepted procedures for industrial work and the results are suffi- 
ciently accurate for most purposes. These analyses, originally stated 
in hypothetical combinations in grains per gallon, have been recom- 
puted to ionic form in parts per million in order that they may be 
compared with other analyses. 

The analyses by Dole and Roberts were made in a special labora- 
tory of the United States Geological Survey in accordance with 
the methods outlined in Water-Supply Paper 236, pages 9 to 26, 
inclusive. The probable accuracy of the methods and their sources 
of error are discussed in the same publication. The samples of water 
for these tests were collected in 1 -gallon glass-stoppered bottles sup- 
plied to the field force from the laboratories, and the waters were 
examined as soon as practicable after collection. 

Field assays of water by Parker and Evans, reported in the table 
of analyses, were made in accordance with the methods outlined in 
172 



CHEMICAL CHAKACTER OF WATERS. 173 

Water-Supply Paper 151, and though only a few estimates were made 
for each water they furnish some additional information concerning 
the quality. 

The results of the analyses in this paper are stated in parts per 
million, and though the amounts of water used for examination were 
measured by volume the mineral content is generally so low that the 
figures may be considered to represent parts per million by weight. 
Simplicity of computation, avoidance of fractions, and certainty of 
the basic unit make this decimal system especially satisfactory for 
practical purposes. Expression of the results of water analyses in 
parts per million has been generally adopted by sanitary and research 
chemists and by many technical chemists, and the e.xlusive employ- 
ment of this unit industrially is delayed only by more or less objec- 
tionable precedent. 

For the convenience of those who may desire to transform the 
results to other forms of expression it may be stated that multiplying 
the number of parts per million by 0.058 gives the equivalent in grains 
per United States gallon of 231 cubic inches; multiplying it by 0.07 
gives the equivalent in grains per imperial gallon ; and multiplying it 
by 0.00833 gives the equivalent in pounds per thousand gallons. 

The analytical methods commonly employed in examining water 
permit the estimation of the elements and radicles present, the de- 
termination of the total amount of mineral matter in solution, and 
the more or less approximate separation of the incrusting from the 
nonincrusting constituents. Further than this, however, ordinary 
chemical tests give little knowledge regarding the chemical compo- 
sition of mineral waters, and consequently the exact amounts of the 
different salts in solution are largely conjectural. Though such salts 
as sodium chloride, potassium carbonate, and magnesium sulphate 
are probably present, they are not determined as such, and their 
exact amounts can not be computed from the analytical data. The 
ionic form of stating the analyses — that is, stating the radicles pres- 
ents — ^has been adopted in this report because it gives fact and not 
opinion. The form is entirely practical and presents the actual re- 
sults for the consideration and criticism of persons other than those 
making the tests. 

WATERS IN GENERAL. 

MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF WATER. 

All natural waters contain dissolved or suspended in them more 
or less of all materials with which they have come into contact. Such 
materials are taken up in amounts determined principally by their 
chemical composition and physical structure, by the temperature, 
pressure, and duration of contact, and by the condition of substances 



174 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

that have previously been incorporated in the water. To designate 
such suspended and dissolved matter as " impurities " is hardly cor- 
rect, because they are introduced normally — in strict accordance with 
natural conditions and not necessarily by human agency. It has 
become customary, however, to call such substances impurities when 
they are detrimental or injurious in some proposed use of a water 
supply. For purposes of examination the substances that may be 
present are classified as suspended matter, such as particles of clay 
or leaves; dissolved matter, either of mineral or organic origin; 
microscopic animals or plants; and bacteria. The presence or ab- 
sence of very small animals and plants likely to affect the quality of 
waters is determined by microscopic examination, and the chance of 
contracting disease by drinking the water is ascertained by bac- 
teriological processes. The amount and the nature of the mineral* 
ingredients are usually determined by estimating total suspended 
matter, total dissolved matter, total hardness, total alkalinity, silica, 
iron, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, carbonates, 
bicarbonates, sulphates, nitrates, chlorides, free carbonic acid, and 
free hydrogen sulphide. These estimates measure the materials 
most commonly present and most likely to affect the value of the 
waters. Articles describing the methods employed in making these 
estimates have already been cited (p. 172). 

In judging the value of a water from the data afforded by analysis 
it is necessary to consider the supply both in relation to the use to 
which it is to be put and in its relation to other available supplies. 
Besides being used for drinking and for general domestic purposes, 
water is essential in steam making, paper making, starch manufac- 
ture, and many other industrial processes. The medicinal properties 
of the dissolved minerals are supposed to give many waters special 
significance. For each of these applications the amounts of certain 
ingredients in the water determine its value and assist in its classifi- 
cation. For example, considerable iron in a water may be harmful 
in one industrial process and harmless in another. The value of a 
water for another process may be directly measurable by the amount 
of suspended matter, the amount of dissolved matter not being sig- 
nificant. Furthermore, many waters that are considered of great 
medicinal value are unfit for boiler use. 

To catalogue waters as good or bad, hard or soft, pure or impure, 
is indefinite and may be misleading. Absolutely pure water (HgO) 
does not exist in nature, and, as stated before, a water should not be 
called impure when it contains only substances derived by natural 
means from natural sources. The arithmetical values of terms ordi- 
narily employed to describe the quality of water, like those of many 
other words, are variable and largely dependent on local usage. In 
New England, for instance, water to be considered soft must have 



CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF WATERS. 175 

much less than 100 parts per million of total hardness, and water 
containing 30 or 40 parts of sulphates would not be used. In south- 
western Ohio, however, it would be difficult to find a well water with 
total hardness less than 100 parts per million, yet many well waters 
in that region are called soft, and many waters containing 30 to 40 
parts of sulphates are used in boilers without occasioning much com- 
ment. This example illustrates the uncertain significance of general 
descriptive words in classifying waters and emphasizes the advisa- 
bility of knowing the intended use of a water and the composition of 
other available supplies before pronouncing judgment on its quality. 

WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE. 

PHYSICAL QUALITIES. 

Suspended mineral matter clogs pipes, valves, and faucets, and 
growths of microscopic plants suspended in water commonly cause 
stains in clothes and bad odors. The red or reddish-brown masses 
of suspended matter sometimes occurring in well waters of this re- 
gion are usually growths of Crenothrix^ which is described by 
Whipple^ as a small filamentous plant having a gelatinous sheath 
colored by a deposit of ferric oxide. It grows especially in ground 
waters containing considerable iron, forming tufts or layers in water 
pipes and well casings and sometimes clogging them. Detached par- 
ticles escaping through faucets give the water an unsightly appear- 
ance and cause rusty stains on clothes washed in it. So far as is 
known, Crenothrix in drinking water does not cause disease. 

True color in water is usually due to dissolved vegetable matter 
and causes serious objection among consumers only when it exceeds 
20 or 30 parts per million. 

In general the well waters of this area are satisfactory in respect 
to suspended mineral matter and color. In some places finely divided 
material from quicksands enters driven wells, but such trouble is 
not nearly so serious as in some other parts of the country. A few of 
the waters, especially those containing iron, develop a turbidity of 
10 to 30 parts per million on exposure to the air, owing to the pre- 
cipitation of dissolved matter, which gives rise to an apparent 
though not a real color. Most of the color recorded in analyses of 
these well waters is due to this cause, and true colors are so low as to 
be insignificant. Odors may be due to several causes. An odor like 
that of rotten eggs, encountered in many waters in the oil belt, is 
due to free hydrogen sulphide (HoS). Growths. of microscopic 
organisms in tanks and water mains often have unpleasant odors 
that make the water objectionable. Perfectly acceptable drinking 
supplies are free from color, odor, taste, and turbidity. 

1 Whipple, G. C, The microscopy of drinking water, New York, 1899, p. 144. 



176 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

BACTERIOLOGICAL QUALITIES. 

Before a water is used for domestic purposes it should be reason- 
ably certain that it is free from disease-bearing organisms, and since 
present bacteriological technique does not permit positive statement 
regarding the presence or absence of such organisms, it is advisable 
to guard supplies against all chances of infection. The disease germs 
most commonly carried by water are those of typhoid fever. The 
bacilli enter the supply from some spot infected by the discharges of 
a person sick with this disease, and, though comparatively short 
lived in water, they persist in fecal deposits and retain their power of 
infection for remarkable lengths of time. Consequently, wells should 
be so located that their waters are guarded against the entrance of 
filth of any kind, either over the top or by infiltration. Pumps and 
piping should also be protected. Water from a carefully cased well 
more than 20 or 30 feet deep is acceptable if the well is located ac- 
cording to reasonable judgment in regard to privies, cesspools, and 
other sources of pollution. Many open dug wells and many pits con- 
structed as reservoirs around the tops of casings are exposed to fecal 
contamination from above or through cracks in poorly built side 
walls. Care should be taken that the casings of deep wells do not 
become leaky near the surface of the ground so as to allow pollution 
to enter. As a matter of ordinary precaution the ground should be 
kept clean and water should not be allowed to become foul or stag- 
nant near any well, no matter how deep. If shallow dug wells are 
necessary, they should be constructed with water-tight casings ex- 
tending as far as practicable into the well and also a short distance 
above ground. The floor, or curbing, should be water-tight and 
pumps should be used in preference to buckets for raising the water. 
Every possible precaution should be taken to prevent feet scrap- 
ings and similar dirt from getting into the water by way of the top 
of the well. Underground water is not only less likely to become con- 
taminated if protected from surface washings, air, and light, but it 
keeps better and is less likely to develop microscopic plants that give 
it an unpleasant taste. 

CHEMICAL QUALITIES. 

Amounts of dissolved substances permissible in a domestic supply 
depend much on their nature. No more than traces of barium, 
copper, zinc, or lead should be present, because these substances are 
poisonous. The occurrence of these elements in measurable amounts 
in ordinary well waters is so rare that tests for them are not usually 
made. Any constituent present in sufficient amount to be clearly 



CHEMICAL CHAEACTER OF WATERS. 177 

perceptible to the taste is objectionable. Water containing two parts 
per million of iron is unpalatable to many people, and even this small 
amount can cause trouble by discoloring washbowls and tubs and by 
producing rusty stains on clothes. Tea or coffee can not be made 
satisfactorily with water containing much iron, because a black, inky 
compound is formed. Four or five parts of hydrogen sulphide make 
a water unpleasant to the taste, and this dissolved gas is objectionable 
also because it corrodes well strainers and other metal fittings. The 
amounts of silica and aluminum ordinarily present in well waters 
have no special significance in relation to domestic supply. The 
alkalies, sodium and potassium, are high in most Ohio waters in 
which chlorides are high. 

Approximately 250 parts of chlorides make a water taste " salty " 
and less than that amount causes corrosion. In regions where the 
chloride content runs as low as 5 or 10 parts in normal waters un- 
affected by animal pollution the amount of chlorides is frequently 
taken as a measure of contamination. But such practice in south- 
western Ohio is out of the question because (1) the normal chloride 
content in most of the well waters is so high that the small changes 
possibly caused by animal pollution are insignificant and (2) be- 
cause wells near together and free from contamination may differ 200 
or 300 per cent in their content of chlorides, owing to difference in 
the composition of the materials from which they draw their re- 
spective supplies. Therefore the establishment of isochlors, or lines 
of equal chlorine, in this area would be of no value whatever to the 
sanitarian. 

Calcium and magnesium are the chief causes of what is known as 
the hardness of water. This undesirable quality is indicated by in- 
creased soap consumption and by deposition on kettles of scale com- 
posed almost entirely of calcium, magnesium, carbonates, and sul- 
phates. Calcium and magnesium unite with soap, forming insoluble 
curdy compounds with no cleansing value and preventing the forma- 
tion of a lather until all of these two basic radicles has been precipi- 
tated. Hardness is measured by the soap-consuming capacity of a 
water expressed as an equivalent of calcium carbonate (CaCOg), 
and it can be computed from the amounts of calcium and magnesium 
in a water or can be determined by actual testing with standard soap 
solution. The use of soda ash (sodium carbonate) to "break" hard 
waters or to precipitate the calcium and magnesium is common and 
effects a saving in the amount of soap. Some large cities in other 
States have found it advisable to soften their public water supplies 
instead of leaving that task to the individual consumer. 

49130°— wsp 259—12 12 



178 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

WATER FOR BOILER USE. 
FORMATION OF SCALE. 

The most common trouble caused in boilers by the mineral con- 
stituents of natural waters is formation of scale or deposition of 
mineral matter within the boiler shell. ^AHien Avater is heated under 
pressure and concentrated by evaporation, as in a steam boiler, cer- 
tain substances go out of solution and solidify on the flues and 
crown sheets or within the tubes. These deposits increase fuel con- 
sumption, because they are poor conductors of heat, and they also 
increase the cost of boiler repairs and attendance, because they have 
to be removed. If the amount of scale is great or if it is allowed 
to accumulate, the boiler capacity is decreased and disastrous explo- 
sions are likely to occur. In two years the inspectors for one insur- 
ance company^ found more than 86,000 boilers, or nearly one-fifth 
of all those examined, to be defective on account of sediment, in- 
crustation, and scale. 

The scale or incrustation consists of the substances that are insolu- 
ble in the feed water or become so within the boiler under conditions 
of ordinary operation. It includes practically all the suspended 
matter or mud; the silica, probably precipitated as the oxide (SiO^) : 
the iron and aluminum, appearing in the scale as oxides or hydrated 
oxides; the calcium, precipitated in the form of carbonate and sul- 
phate; and the magnesium, found in the deposits principally as the 
oxide but partly as the carbonate. The scale constituted by these 
substances is therefore a mixture of compounds, which varies in 
amount, density, hardness, and composition w^ith different conditions 
of water supply, steam pressure, type of boiler, and other circum- 
stances. Calcium and magnesium are the principal basic substances 
in the scale, over 90 per cent of which usually is calcium, magnesium, 
carbonates, and sulphates. If much organic matter is present part 
of it is precipitated with the mineral scale, as the organic matter is 
decomposed by heat or by reaction with other substances. If mag- 
nesium and sulphates are comparatively low or if suspended matter 
is comparatively high the scale is soft and bulky and may be in the 
form of sludge that can be blown or washed from the boiler. On 
the other hand, a clear water relatively high in magnesium and sul- 
phates may produce a hard, compact scale that is nearly as dense 
as porcelain, clings to the tubes, and offers great resistance to the 
transmission of heat. Therefore the value of a Avater for boiler use 
depends not only on the quantity of scale produced by it, but also 
on the physical structure of the scale. 

iThe Locomotive (Hartford), new ser., vol. 21, 1900, p. 29; vol. 22, 1901, p. 21. 



CHEMICAL CHAEACTEE OF WATEES. 179 

CORROSION. 

Corrosion or " pitting " is caused chiefly by the solvent action of 
acids on the iron of the boiler. Free acids capable of dissolving iron 
occur in some natural waters, especially in the drainage from coal 
mines, which usually contains free sulphuric acid, and also in some 
factory wastes draining into streams. Many ground waters contain 
free hydrogen sulphide, a gas that readily attacks boilers; dissolved 
oxygen and free carbon dioxide also are corrosive. Organic matter is 
probably a source of acids, for it is well known that waters high in 
organic matter and low in calcium and magnesium are corrosive, 
though the exact nature and action of the organic bodies are not under- 
stood. Acids freed in the boiler by the deposition of basic radicles as 
hydrates are the most important cause of corrosive action. Iron, 
aluminum, and magnesium are precipitated as hydrates that are 
later partly or completely converted into oxides. According to the 
chemical composition of the water the acid radicles that were in 
equilibrium with these bases may pass into equilibrium with other 
bases, displacing equivalent proportions of weaker acids, or they may 
decompose carbonates that have been precipitated as scale, or they 
may combine with the iron of the boiler shell, thus causing corrosion ; 
or they may do all these. If these acids exceed the amount required 
to decompose the carbonate and bicarbonate radicles present the iron 
of the boiler is attacked and the results are pits or tuberculations of 
the interior surface, leaks, particularly around rivets, and consequent 
deterioration of the boiler. 

FOAMING. 

Foaming is the formation of masses of bubbles on the surface of 
the water in the boiler and in the steam space above the water, 
and it is intimately connected with priming, which is the passage 
from the boiler of water mixed with steam. Foaming results when 
anything prevents the free escape of steam from the water. It 
may be due to particles of suspended matter, but the principal cause 
is usually an excess of dissolved substances that increases the surface 
tension of the liquid and thereby reduces the readiness with which 
the steam bubbles break. Therefore the tendency of a water to foam 
varies inversely with the concentration it will undergo before de- 
veloping an excessive surface tension. As the sodium and potassium 
salts remain dissolved in the boiler water while the greater portion of 
the other substances is precipitated, the foaming tendency is com- 
monly measured by the degree of concentration of the alkaline salts 
in solution, because this figure, considered in connection with the type 
of boiler, determines the length of time that a boiler may run with- 
out danger of foaming. 



180 UNDEKGEOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

REMEDIES FOR BOILER TROUBLES. 

The best remedy for troubles caused by substances in feed waters is 
treatment of supplies before they enter boilers. (See p. 195.) \Vhen 
such treatment can not be given there are various ways of reducing 
potential injury. Low-pressure, large-flue boilers are used with hard 
waters in many stationary plants in the central States and it is 
said that the scale formed in them is softer and more flocculent and 
can therefore be more readil}^ removed than that in high-pressure 
boilers. Blowing off is about the only practical means of preventing 
foaming, because this trouble is due principally to concentration of 
soluble salts in the residual water of the boilers. Accumulated 
sludge, or soft scale, can be removed by blowing, particularly in 
locomotive practice. In condensing systems much of the trouble due 
to mineral matter in the feed water is obviated because the quantity 
of raw water supplied is proportionately small. The problem is not 
completely solved in such systems, because the incrusting or corro- 
sive action is transferred from the boiler to the condenser, which 
requires more or less cleaning and repairing in proportion to the 
undesirable qualities of the water supply. 

BOILER COMPOUNDS. 

Boiler compounds are widely used in regions where hard waters 
abound, but treatment within the boiler should be given only when it 
is impossible to purify the supply before it enters the boiler. If pre- 
vious purification is not practicable many feed waters can be im- 
proved by judicious addition of chemicals. Many substances, rang- 
ing from flour, oatmeal, and sliced potatoes to barium and chro- 
mium salts, have been recommended for such use, but only two or 
three have proved to be truly economical. Gary ^ has classified these 
substances according to their action w^ithin the boiler. Those that 
attack chemically the scaling and corroding constituents precipitate 
the incrusting matter and neutralize the acids. Soda ash, the com- 
mercial form of sodium carbonate, containing about 95 per cent 
Na2 CO3, is the most valuable substance of this character, because it is 
cheap and its use is attended with the least objectionable results. 
Tannin and tannin compounds are also used for the same purpose. 
Palmer^ mentions the use of limewater to prevent corrosion and to 
obviate foaming, and it is probable that waters high in organic mat- 
ter and very low in incrustants would be improved by such treat- 
ment. When soda ash is used it neutralizes free acids and prevents 

1 Gary, A. A., The use of boiler compounds : Am. Machinist, vol. 22, pt. 2, 1899, p. 1153. 

2 Palmer, Chase, Quality of the underground waters in the Blue Grass region of Ken- 
tucky ; Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 233, 1909, p. 187. 



CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF WATERS. 181 

the precipitation of calcium sulphate by causing the precipitation of 
calcium carbonate. At the same time the sodium content of the feed 
is increased in proportion to the amount of soda ash added. The 
proper amount to b^ used depends on the chemical composition of 
each water and the style of the boiler. Gary's second class of boiler 
compounds comprises those that act mechanically on the precipi- 
tated crystals of scale-making matter soon after they are formed, sur- 
rounding them and robbing them of their cement-like action. Glu- 
tinous, starchy, and oily substances belong to this class, but they are 
not now used to any considerable extent, because they thicken and 
foul the water more than they prevent the formation of hard scale. 
The third class comprises compounds that act mechanically, like those 
of the second class, and also partly dissolve deposited scale, thus 
loosening it and aiding in its ready removal. Kerosene is the most 
effective of such materials. 

Many boiler compounds possessing or supposed to possess one or 
more of the functions just described are on the market, and are widely 
sold. Some are effective and some are positively injurious. Most 
of them depend for their chief action on soda ash, petroleum, or a 
vegetable extract, but all are costly compared with lime and soda 
ash. It can readily be understood that boiler compounds can not in 
any manner reduce the total amount of scale, but may increase it. 
Their only legitimate functions are to prevent deposition of hard 
scale and to remove accumulations of scale that have become at- 
tached to the boiler. Every engineer should bear in mind that a 
steam boiler is an expensive piece of apparatus and that fuel and 
boiler repairs also are expensive. Therefore he should, hesitate to 
add substances to his feed water without competent advice regard- 
ing their effect. It is far more economical to have the water supply 
analyzed and to treat it effectively by well-known chemicals in proper 
proportion, either within or without the boiler, than to experiment 
with compounds of unknown composition. 

CLASSIFICATION OF BOILER WATERS. 

Stabler^ in his excellent mathematical discussion of the quality 
of waters with reference to industrial uses gives several formulas by 
which waters may be classified. His methods of calculating the 
amount and the character of scale likely to result from use of a 
water are given in slightly altered form : 

A=Sm+Cm+1.3Fe-fl.9Al+1.66Mg-f2.95Ca. 

lEng. News, vol. 60, 1908, p. 355; also Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 
274, 1911, p. 165. 



182 UNDERGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

A, Sm, Cm, Fe, Al, Mg, and Ca represent, respectively, the amounts 
in parts per million of scale, suspended matter, colloidal matter 
(silica plus oxides of iron and aluminum), iron, aluminum, magne- 
sium, and calcium in the water. In this formula Ca should not exceed 
.668CO3+.328HCO3+.417SO4, in which CO3, HCO3, and SO, repre- 
sent, respectively, the amounts in parts per million of the carbonate, 
bicarbonate, and sulphate radicles in the water. It is uncertain in 
some waters whether iron and aluminum are in solution or in colloidal 
state, but in applying these formulas to Ohio ground waters little 
error is introduced by as^ming that Cm equals silica only. If it is 
desired to compute the scale-forming ingredients of waters whose 
analyses in this report give no values for silica, iron, or aluminum. 
Cm may be taken as 20 and Fe and Al as zero without introducing 
great error. In clear waters Sm would of course be zero; conse- 
quently for most Ohio ground waters the amount of scale may be 
estimated practically from the figures representing silica, calcium, 
and magnesium. 

In the following Stabler formula B represents the amount of hard 
scale in parts per million; SiOg, Mg, CI, So,, Na, and K represent 
the respective amounts in parts per million of silica, magnesium, 
chlorides, sulphates, sodium, and potassium. If the alkalies are not 
separated, the figure representing sodium and postassium together 
and computed as sodium may be used with the Na coefficient in place 
of the last two terms of these formulas. 

B=Si02+1.66Mg-fl.92Cl+1.42SO,-2.95Na— 1.74K. 

The ratio between the amount of hard scale and the total amount 
of scale is an index of the probable hardness of the scale; if the 
computed quantity of hard scale constitutes one-half or more of the 
total scale the scale may be considered hard ; if the hard scale is less 
than one-fourth of the total the scale would be soft ; and if B divided 
by A is between one-fourth and one-half, the scale may be classified 
as medium. For other formulas and comments on those quoted the 
original article should be consulted. 

The committee on water service of the American Railway Engi- 
neers and Maintenance of Way Association have offered a classifica- 
tion of waters in their raw state that may be employed for approxi- 
mate purposes, but, as the report states, " it is difficult to define by 
analysis sharply the line between good and bad water for steam- 
making purposes." The following table gives this classification with 
the amounts transformed to parts per million. In many Ohio waters 
the total incrusting and corrosive constituents are equivalent approxi- 
mately to total solids. 



CHEMICAL CHAKACTEK OF WATERS. 



183 



Approximate classification of loaters for 'boiler use according to proportion of 
incrusting, foaming, and corroding constituents. 



Incmsting and corroding constitu- 
ents a (parts per million). 


Foaming constituents & (parts per 
million). 


More 
than— 


Not more 
than— 


Classifica- 
tion. 


More 
than— 


Not more 
than— 


Classifica- 
tion. 


90 

200 
430 
680 


90 
200 
430 

680 


Good. 
Fair. 
Poor. 
Bad. 
Very bad. 




150 
250 
400 


Good. 
Fair. 
Bad. 
Very bad. 


150 
250 
400 





« Proc. Am. Ry. Eng. and Maintenance of Way Assoc, vol. 5, 1904, p. 595. 
»Idem, vol. 9, 1908, p. 134. 

These limits must be interpreted liberally in practice, because they 
are modified by the comparative hardness of the incrustation and the 
comparative extent of corrosion effected by waters of the same min- 
eral content but of different chemical composition. Very hard 
waters may be improved by treatment in softening plants. How 
bad a water may be used without treatment depends on the cost of 
artificially softening the water and the amount saved by the use of 
the softened water. A report^ of the committee on water service 
just quoted describes the principles on which such calculations should 
be based. In general, it is economical in locomotive service to treat 
waters containing 250 to 850 parts per million of incrustants and 
those containing less than the lower amount if the scale contains much 
sulphates.- As the incrusting solids may commonly be reduced to 
80 or 90 parts per millionj the economy of treating boiler waters de- 
serves consideration in a region where most of the supplies contain 
300 to 500 parts per million of incrusting and corrosive matter. The 
amount of mineral matter that makes a water unfit for boiler use 
depends on the combined effect in boilers of the softening reagents 
used with such waters and of the constituents not removed by soften- 
ing. Sodium salts added to remove incrustants or to prevent corro- 
sion increase the foaming tendency, and this increase may be great 
enough to render a water useless for steaming. It is not of much 
benefit to soften a water containing more than 850 parts per million 
of nonincrusting material and much incrusting sulphates.^ Though 
waters containing as high as 1,700 parts per million of foaming con- 
stituents have been used, it is usually more economical to incur consid- 
erable expense in replacing such supplies by better ones. 

These numerical standards are only roughly approximate, and they 
should be interpreted liberally in practice. The value of natural 
waters for boiler use depends primarily on their corroding and f oam- 

i Proc. Am. Ry. Eng. and Maintenance of Way Assoc, vol. 8, 1907, p. 601. 
2 Idem, vol. 6, 1905, p. 610. 



184 UNDEBGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

ing tendencies and on the amount and character of scale likely to be 
deposited by them, but this value should always be considered in con- 
nection with local standards, for no matter how low a water may be 
in undesirable constituents it can not be classed as good if it is poorer 
in quality than the average water of the region in which it occurs. 
On the other hand, if the best available supply is poor the economy 
of purifying it, even at large expense, is obvious. 

WATER FOR MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIAL USES. 
GENERAL REQUISITES. 

The manufacture of many articles is affected by the ingredients of 
natural waters. The quality of water for boiler service has already 
been discussed ; with reference to factories it need only be added that 
increase of boiler efficiency often justifies purification of poor water 
when increased value of the manufactured product alone may not be 
considered to do so. This observation applies particularly to paper, 
pulp, and strawboard mills, laundries, and other establishments 
where large quantities of water are evaporated to furnish steam for 
drying, and to ice factories and similar plants where distilled water is 
produced. But besides its use for steam making water plays a specific 
part in many manufacturing processes. In paper mills, strawboard 
mills, bleacheries, dye works, pickle factories, creameries, slaughter- 
houses, packing houses, nitroglycerin factories, distilleries, breweries, 
woolen mills, starch works, sugar works, canneries, glue factories, soap 
factories, and chemical works water becomes a part of the product or 
is essential in its manufacture. As the principal function of water 
in most of these establishments is that of a cleansing agent or a 
vehicle for other substances, a supply free from color, odor, suspended 
matter, microscopic organisms, and especially bacteria of fecal origin, 
and fairly low in dissolved substances, especially iron, is generally sat- 
isfactory ; but there are some exceptions. Water hygienically accept- 
able is necessary where it comes into contact with or forms part of 
food materials, as in the making of beverages and dairy or meat 
products. As all these ideal conditions are found in but few natural 
supplies, the manufacturer is confronted with the problems of ascer- 
taining what degree of freedom from these substances is necessary to 
prevent injury to his machinery or to his output and whether the 
cost of obtaining such purity is counterbalanced by decreased cost of 
production and increased value of product. 

The effects in some industries of the substances most commonly 
found in water are here outlined, the object being to offer approximate 
standards to aid in classification. 



CHEMICAL CHAEACTER OF WATERS. 185 

FREE ACIDS. 

Free mineral acids, such as the sulphuric acid in drainage from 
coal mines, or the hydrochloric acid in the effluents of some industrial 
establishments, are especially injurious and nearly always necessitate 
purification of the water. In paper mills, cotton mills, bleacheries, 
and dye works acids decompose chemicals and streak the fabrics be- 
sides rotting them. They also corrode metal work, rapidly destroying 
screens, strainers, and pipes. Such effects are likely to follow the use 
of water that contains a measurable amount of free mineral acid. 

SUSPENDED MATTER. 

Suspended matter in surface waters may be of vegetable, mineral, 
or animal origin, as it consists of particles of sewage, bits of leaves, 
sawdust, sticks, sand, and clay. The silt so common in rivers of the 
West is largely derived from sand and clay. Few well waters contain 
suspended animal or vegetable matter, but many carry finely divided 
sand and clay and many become turbid by precipitation of dissolved 
ingredients. Suspended matter is objectionable in all processes in 
which water is used for washing or comes into contact with food 
materials, because it is likely to stain or spot the product. Suspended 
matter due to precipitated iron is especially injurious even in small 
amount on that account. Suspended vegetable or animal matter 
liable to decomposition or to partial solution is much more objection- 
able, even in small amounts (10 to 20 parts per million), than are 
equal quantities of mineral matter. For these reasons water should 
be freed from suspended matter before being used for laundering, 
bleaching, wool scouring, paper making, dyeing, starch making, sugar 
making, brewing, distilling, and similar processes. In making the 
coarser grades of paper, such as strawboard, a small amount of 
suspended matter is not especially injurious, but for the finer white 
and colored varieties clear water is essential. 

COLOR. 

Color in water is due principally to solution of vegetable matter, 
and materials bleached, washed, or dyed light shades in colored 
water are likely to become tinged. Highly colored waters can be 
used in making wrapping or dark-tinted papers but not the white 
grades, and paper manufacturers are put to great expense for water 
purification on that account. The lower waters are in color, there- 
fore, the more desirable they are for use in bleacheries, dye works, 
paper mills, and other factories where brown tints are undesirable. 



186 UNDEKGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

IRON. 

Iron is the most undesirable dissolved constituent, comparatively 
Small quantities of it necessitating purification. Many ground waters 
contain 1 to 20 parts per million of iron, which may be precipitated 
by exposure to the air and by release of hydrostatic pressure, causing 
the waters to become turbid; many such waters develop growths of 
Crenothrix (see p. 175) that may interfere with industrial operations. 
In all cleansing processes, especially if soap or alkali is used, precipi- 
tated iron is likely to cause rusty or dull spots. In contact with ma- 
terials containing tannin compounds iron forms greenish or black 
substances that discolor the product. Therefore many waters con- 
taining amounts even as small as 1 or 2 parts per million of iron 
have to be purified before they can be used industrially. In water 
for dye works iron is especially objectionable and commonly pre- 
vents the use of the water without purification.^ Iron in the water 
supply of paper mills may be precipitated on the pulp, giving a 
brown color, or during sizing or tinting, giving spotty effects. Water 
containing much iron can not be used in bleaching fabrics, because 
salts that spot the goods are formed. The dark-colored compounds 
that iron forms with tannin discolor hides in tanning and barley in 
malting, and also give beer bad color, odor, and taste.^ 

CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM. 

Calcium and magnesium are similar in their industrial effects. In 
amount they bear a more or less definite relation to each other, most 
waters carrying 10 to 50 per cent as much magnesium as calcium. 
Both are precipitated on whatever is boiled in water containing them, 
forming a deposit that may interfere with later operations. As they 
decompose equivalent amounts of many chemicals employed in tech- 
nical operations they are a cause of waste. Moreover, the alkaline- 
earth compounds thus formed on fabrics interfere with later treat- 
ment. For instance, some of the chemicals used to disintegrate the 
fibers in making pulp are consumed by the calcium and magnesium in 
the water supply, though the loss from this source is not nearly so great 
as that occurring later when the resin soap used in sizing the paper 
is decomposed by the calcium and magnesium. The insoluble soaps 
thus created do not fix themselves on the fibers, but form clots and 
streaks. Similar decomposition of valuable cleansing materials and 
subsequent deposition of insoluble compounds take place in launder- 
ing, wool scouring, and similar processes. In the manufacture of 
soap calcium and magnesium form with the fatty acids curdy pre- 
cipitates that are insoluble in water and therefore have no cleansing 

1 Sadtler, S. P., A handbook of industrial organic chemistry, Philadelphia, 1900, p. 483. 
- De la Coux, M, A. J., L'eau dans I'industrie, Paris, 1900, pp. 187 and 232, 



CHEMICAL CHAEACTEK OF WATERS. 187 

value. Many dyeing operations are interfered with by calcium and 
magnesium, which neutralize chemicals and change the reaction of 
the baths besides forming insoluble compounds with many dyes. 
Highly calcareous waters can not be used for boiling the grain in 
distilleries because proper action is hindered by the deposition of 
alkaline-earth salts on the particles of grain, nor for diluting spirits 
because they cause turbidity.^ Very soft water, on the other hand, 
is said to be undesirable in paper mills for loading papers with any 
form of calcium sulphate, because such waters dissolve part of the 
loading materials.^ Probably waters high in chlorides would also be 
bad for this purpose, because chlorides increase the solubility of cal- 
cium sulphate. 

CARBONATES. 

The effects of carbonates and bicarbonates in waters used in indus- 
trial processes are not differentiated in this paragraph. It is not un- 
common to estimate the combined carbonic acid and to state it as the 
carbonate (CO3) without distinguishing between the carbonate (CO3) 
and bicarbonate (HCO3), though in many natural waters the carbo- 
nate radicle is absent and the combined carbonic acid is present in 
the form of bicarbonates. If hard waters proportionately high in 
carbonates and low in sulphates are boiled the bicarbonate radicle is 
decomposed, free carbonic acid is given off, and the greater part of 
the calcium and magnesium is precipitated. For this reason waters 
of that character are generally more desirable for industrial opera- 
tions than waters high in sulphates and low in carbonates, as boiling 
does not greatly reduce the amount of the hardening constituents 
under the latter conditions. In beer making waters high in corbo- 
nates are said to produce dark-colored beers with a pronounced malt 
flavor because the carbonates increase the solubility of the nitrog- 
enous bodies, whereas water high in suphates yield pale beers with 
a definite hop flavor because the sulphates reduce the solubility of the 
malt and the coloring matters.^ 

SULPHATES. 

The influence of sulphates in beer making has been noted. Hard 
waters with sulphates predominating are desirable in tanning heavy 
hides because they swell the skins, exposing more surface for the 
action of the tan liquors.* Sulphates interfere with crystallization 
in sugar making by increasing the amount of sugar retained in the 
mother liquor. 

1 De la Coux, M. A. J., op. cit., p. 251. 

2 Cross, C. F., and Bevan, E. J., A textbook of paper making, New York, 1900, p. 294. 

3 Brewing water, its defects and remedies, American Burtonizing Co., New York, 1909, 
p. 19. Also De la Coux, op. cit., p. 169. 

1^ Parker, H. N., and others. The Potomac River basin : Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. 
Survey No. 192, 1907, p. 194. 



188 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

CHLORIDES. 

High chlorides in the waters of southwestern Ohio are usually 
accompanied by high alkalies. Appreciable amounts of chlorides are 
injurious in many industrial processes, and this is particularly un- 
fortunate, as no practicable way of removing or reducing this radicle 
except by distillation has been discovered. Beverages and food prod- 
ucts, of course, can not be treated with waters very high in chlorides 
without becoming salty. In tanning, chlorides cause the hides to 
become thin and flabby.^ Animal charcoal used in clarifying sugar 
is robbed of its bleaching power by absorption of salt, and the 
quality of sugars is affected by chloride-bearing waters, because 
saline salts are incorporated in the crystals.^ In the preparation of 
alcoholic beverages chlorides in large amount prevent the growth of 
the yeast and interfere with the germination of the grain. 

ORGANIC MATTER. 

Organic matter of fecal origin is of course dangerous in any water 
that comes into contact with food products, and water so polluted 
should be purified before being used. Care in this respect is par- 
ticularly necessary in creameries, slaughterhouses, canneries, pickle 
factories, distilleries, breweries, and sugar factories. Organic matter 
not necessarily capable of producing disease is undesirable in indus- 
trial supplies because it induces decomposition in other organic 
materials, like cloth, yarn, sugar, starch, meat, or paper, rotting and 
discoloring them, and because it causes slime spots on fabrics by 
supporting algae growths. 

HYDROGEN SULPHIDE. 

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a gas with an odor like that of rotten 
eggs. It occurs dissolved in some underground waters. It is cor- 
rosive even in small quantities, and it also injures materials by 
discoloring and rotting them. It occurs in many waters otherwise 
unfit for industrial use by reason of their large content of dissolved 
salts. 

MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 

Silica and aluminum are usually not present in sufficient quantity 
to have any appreciable effect in industrial processes except when 
water is evaporated. Large quantities of sodium and potassium, by 
adding to the amount of dissolved matter, are objectionable in some 
manufacturing operations. Phosphates, nitrates, and some other 

1 Parker, H, N., loc. cit. 

2 De la Coux, M. A. J., op. cit., p. 152. 



CHEMICAL CHAKACTER OF WATERS. 189 

substances not noted in this outline interfere with industrial chemical 
reactions, but they are present in few natural waters in sufficient 
quantity to have noticeable effect. 

WATER FOR MEDICINAL USE. 

The relation between the constituents of natural waters and their 
physiologic action has been discussed at length in the works of 
Cohen/ Crook,^ and others. To note a few features that are often 
forgotten or disregarded in considering the application of mineral 
waters may, however, not be out of place. 

The term "mineral" may reasonably be applied to all natural 
waters, as all contain dissolved mineral matter, but in general prac- 
tice it is restricted to those that are exploited on account of their 
supposedly specific physiologic action. The term " medicinal " is 
sometimes used to distinguish highly mineralized waters from those 
that are low in mineral constituents and are especially acceptable as 
table waters by reason of their physical characteristics. The most 
logical classification of waters for discussing their chemical constitu- 
ents in relation to therapeutics is that of Peale ^ as modified by Hay- 
wood* for the ionic form of stating analyses of water, though 
Haywood's system is somewhat misleading in a few minor details. 
It is a strictly chemical classification, by which waters are grouped 
according to their reaction and their predominating basic and acidic 
radicles, so that the name conveys a statement of the principal active 
substances. 

The therapeutic application of water, or its use for the correction 
of diseased conditions of the human body, has always been recognized 
in scientific writings, and the continued and increasing patronage of 
mineral-spring resorts and the undoubted improvement of many 
patients treated there clearly indicate that some natural waters have 
curative properties. Yet the frequent claims of miraculous recovery 
by the use of mineral waters, together with the extravagant state- 
ments regarding the waters, can but rouse skepticism as investigation 
reveals how'meagerly such claims are supported by evidence. State- 
ment of analyses in hypothetical combination adds to the confusion, 
because the identity and the number of the compounds calculated 
depend on the judgment of the analyst and not on his laboratory 
data. Therefore comparison of the analyses of different waters is 
rendered difficult and misleading. Lithium, for instance, is said to 

1 Cohen, S, S., System of physiologic therapeutics, vol. 9, Philadelphia, 1902. 

2 Crook, J, K., The mineral waters of the United States and their therapeutic uses, 1899. 

3 Peale, A. C, The natural mineral waters of the United States : Fourteenth Ann. Rept. 
U. S. Geol. Survey, 1894, pt. 2, p. 53 ; also, The classification of American mineral 
waters : Trans. Am. Climatological Assoc, May 31, 1907 ; also, introductory chapter on 
the classification of mineral waters in Cohen's System of physiologic therapeutics, vol. 
9, 1902, p. 299. 

* Haywood, J. K., and Smith, B. H., Mineral waters of the United States : U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Bur. Chemistry, Bull. 91, 1905, p. 9. 



190 UNDEKGKOUND WATEKS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

be a particularly valuable ingredient ; yet many analysts report lith- 
ium carbonate, sulphate, or chloride in waters, in spite of the fact that 
possible physiologic action is due to the lithium ion and not to 
lithium carbonate in distinction from lithium chloride or lithium sul- 
phate; or, in other words, that the action takes place only when the 
salt is dissociated. If different lithium compounds are reported, it is 
impossible to measure the effect of the lithium, unless it is recognized 
that 5.3 parts per million of lithium carbonate, 6.1 parts of lithium 
chloride, 7.9 of lithium sulphate, and 9.7 of lithium bicarbonate con- 
tain each exactly 1 part of lithium. The curative properties of some 
waters are attributed to minor ingredients that are present in com- 
paratively insignificant quantities, and many waters containing much 
less than 1 part per million of lithium are widely advertised as lithia 
waters. Though it is true that many drugs are as efficient when 
given in very small but frequent doses as when given in one large 
dose, the therapeutic value of 1 part per million of lithium may well 
be questioned, for 200 tumblerfuls of the water contain only one 
ordinary minimum dose of lithium. The physiologic effect of these 
minor ingredients is usually overshadowed by that of other sub- 
stances present in much larger quantities. Many strong brines, for 
example, contain considerable amounts of lithium, but, as Hessler 
states,^ the effect of 10 parts of lithium in the presence of 1,000 or 
more parts of chlorides would probably be insignificant as compared 
with the effect of the saline constituents. Many mineral springs are 
found to possess radioactivity, and this characteristic has been ad- 
vanced as explaining their curative qualities. So far as the writer is 
informed, however, no acceptable proof of this theory has been 
offered. On the other hand, the beneficial effect on the human 
body of water itself, both hot and cold, used internally or exter- 
nally, is thoroughly recognized in therapeutics, and the curative 
qualities of waters not containing appreciable amounts of physio- 
logically active substances may be attributed as reasonably to the 
action of water itself, combined with a normal regimen of diet, 
exercise, and other hygienic restrictions, as to some mysterious 
quality or substance yet undiscovered. 

PURIFICATION or WATER. 
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND METHODS OF PURIFICATION. 

Purification of water is removal or reduction in amount of sub- 
stances that render waters in their raw state unsuitable for use. It 
is practiced on a large scale with one or more of three objects in 
view : First, to render the supply safe and unobjectionable for drink- 
ing; second, to reduce the amount of the mineral ingredients in- 
jurious to boilers ; third, to remove substances injurious to machinery 

1 Hessler, Robert, The mineral waters of Indiana, with indications for their therapeutic 
application : Trans. Indiana State Med. Soc, 1902. 



PUEIFICATION OF WATEK. 191 

or to industrial products. The largest purification plants in this 
country have been constructed almost solel}^ for the purpose of 
producing potable waters, and some waters need no further treat- 
ment before being suitable for steaming and for general industrial 
purposes. But many other waters are hard, and increased apprecia- 
tion of the value of good water has resulted in demand for the re- 
moval of the hardening constituents also. An excellent example of 
the result of such insistence is the recently installed plant at New 
Orleans, where hard, colored, turbid, sewage-polluted river water 
is brought up to practically all industrial and domestic standards 
of purity. 

Eemoval of bacteria, especially those causing disease, and removal 
of turbidity, odor, taste, and iron are the principal requirements in 
purification of a municipal supply, elimination of bacteria and sus- 
pended matter being the most important. The common methods 
of eifecting such purification are slow filtration through sand and 
rapid filtration after coagulation, both methods usually being com- 
bined with sedimentation. The first process is known as slow sand 
filtration and the second as mechanical filtration. The efficiency of 
such filters is measured primarily by the ratio between the number 
of bacteria in the applied water and the number in the effluent. 
This figure, stated in percentage of removal, should be as high as 
98, and it often reaches 99.8 per cent under normal conditions with 
a carefully operated filter of either kind. 

Eemoval of scale-forming and neutralization of corrosive con- 
stituents are the chief aims in preparing water for steam making. 
For this two general methods are employed, namely, cold chemical 
l^recipitation followed by sedimentation, and heating with or with- 
out chemicals, usually followed by rapid filtration. The first process 
is carried on in cold-water softening plants and the second in feed- 
water heaters. 

The requirements of the water supplies for industries are so 
varied that classification of purification methods is difficult. Water 
properly prepared for domestic and boiler use is suitable for most 
industrial establishments, and it is more economical for small manu- 
facturers in large cities to buy such water from water companies than 
to maintain private supplies and purification apparatus. It is 
usually cheaper, however, for large factories to be supplied from 
separate sources, not only because of saving in actual cost of Avater 
but also because of the opportunity thus afforded of procuring water 
specially adapted to the needs of the factory. The common methods 
of industrial-water purification are those already mentioned or com- 
binations of them modified to meet particular needs. In a few 
industrial processes, notably the manufacture of ice by the can 
system, water practically free from all dissolved and suspended sub- 
stances is necessary and distilled water must be manufactured. 



192 UNDEEGEOUND WATEKS OF SOUTHWESTEEN OHIO. 

Distillation is expensive, though the employment of multiple-effect 
evaporators has greatly reduced the cost of operation. 

Besides the four common systems of purification many minor proc- 
esses are used, sometimes alone, but more frequently as adjuncts to 
filters or softeners. Surface waters may be screened through 
wooden or iron grids or through revolving wire screens to remove 
sticks and leaves before other treatment. Coarse suspended matter 
can be removed by rapid filtration through ground quartz or similar 
material, in units of convenient size, provided with arrangements 
for washing the filtering medium similar to those used in mechanical 
filters. Very turbid river waters may be first allowed to stand in 
large sedimentation basins to reduce the cost of operating the filters 
by preliminary removal of part of the suspended solids. Supplies 
undesirable only because of their iron content are aerated by being 
sprayed into the air or by being allowed to trickle over rocks or by 
other methods that cause evaporation of carbonic acid and absorption 
of oxygen, thus precipitating and oxidizing the iron solution so that 
it can be readily removed by rapid filtration. Similar aeration is 
often employed to evaporate and oxidize dissolved gases that cause 
objectionable tastes and odors. 

Disinfection by ozone, copper sulphate, calcium hypochlorite, and 
many other substances kills organisms that may cause disease or 
may impart bad odors and tastes. Purification of this character 
must be done with substances that destroy the objectionable organ- 
isms without making the water poisonous to animals. Such treat- 
ment is especially adapted for sewage-polluted waters,^ and it is now 
widely practiced either as an adjunct to filtration of municipal sup- 
plies or as an emergency precaution where otherwise untreated sup- 
plies are believed to be contaminated. Natural purification of water 
is accomplished largely through the biological processes mentioned by 
Hazen,^ in which the organic matter" is oxidized by serving as food 
for bacteria and objectionable organisms are destroyed by producing 
conditions unfavorable to their existence. Action of this kind takes 
place in reservoirs and lakes, and it is also relied upon in many 
processes for the artificial purification of sewage.^ 

SLOW SAND FILTRATION. 

Slow sand filtration consists in causing the water to pass down- 
ward through a layer of sand of such thickness and fineness that 
the requisite removal of suspended substances is accomplished. The 
slow sand filter is also called the " continuous " and the " English " 
filter. On the bottom of a water-tight basin, commonly constructed 

1 Phelps, E. B., The disinfection of sewage and sewage-filter eflauents: Water-Supply 
Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 229, 1909. 

2 Hazen, Allen, Clean water and how to get it. New York, 1909, p. 83. 

3 Winslow, C.-E. A., and Phelps, E. B., Investigations on the purification of Boston 
sewage, with a history of the sewage-disposal problem : Water-Supply Paper U- S. Geol. 
Survey No, 185, 1906. 



PURIFICATION OF WATER. 193 

of concrete, perforated tiles or pipes laid in the form of a grid are 
covered with a foot of gravel graded in size from bottom to top, 
and a layer of fine sand 3 to 4 feet in depth is put over the gravel, 
which serves only to support the sand. When water is applied on 
the surface it passes through the sand and the gravel, and flows 
away through the underdrain. The suspended materials* including 
bacteria are removed by the sand, the action of which is rendered 
more efficient by the rapid formation of a mat of finely divided 
sediment on the surface. When this film has become so thick that 
filtration is unduly retarded the water is allowed to subside below 
the surface and about half an inch of sand is removed, after which 
filtration is resumed. The sand thus taken off is washed to free it 
from the collected impurities and is replaced on the beds after they 
have been reduced by successive scrapings to a thickness of about 
20 inches. As cleaning necessitates temporary withdrawal of filters 
from service, they are divided into units of convenient size, usually 
half an acre each, so that the operation of the system may not be 
interrupted. Filters may be roofed and sodded ; this facilitates clean- 
ing by preventing the formation of ice, permits work on the filter 
beds in all kinds of weather, and inhibits algse growths. 

The foregoing are the essential features of a slow sand filter, but 
several adjuncts render this system more efficient. A clear-water 
basin for the filtered supply, covered to prevent deterioration of the 
water, is provided in order that the varying rate of consumption may 
not affect the rate of filtration. Clarification of turbid water is 
rendered more economical by allowing it to stand for one to three 
days, during which a large portion of the suspended matter is de- 
posited, thus lengthening the time between sand scrapings. Another 
form of pretreatment is passage through roughing or preliminary 
filters consisting of beds of slag, sponge, or stone, through which the 
water flows at fifteen to twenty times the rate in sand filters, a very 
large proportion of the suspended matter being thus removed. Ob- 
jectionable odors and tastes may be obviated by aeration before or 
after filtration. Killing the bacteria before filtration by the use of 
ozone, chlorine, or other germicides is also practiced. 

Slow sand filtration removes practically all the suspended matter 
and the bacteria. Color is only slightly reduced, and the hardness 
is not changed. The process is especially adapted to waters low in 
color, suspended matter, and animal pollution. Very small particles 
of clay are not removed by these filters, and for waters carrying 
such particles only for short periods the addition of a coagulant 
before filtration has been proposed.^ It can readily be seen that the 
efficiency of this kind of filter depends largely on the character of 

1 Report of Hering, Fuller, and Hazen on the methods of purifying the water supply 
Of the District of Columbia: Sen. Rept, 2380, 56th Cong., 24 sess, 

49130°r^wsp 259—12 13 



194 UNDEEGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

the sand, as the ability to prevent the passage of suspended matter 
is governed by the size of the spaces between the sand particles. The 
rate of filtration depends on the average size of the sand particles, 
the thickness of the sand bed, the head of water, and the turbidity. 
Under ordinary conditions of operation in the United States the rate 
in slow sand filters of water already subjected to sedimentation is 
2,000,000 to 4,000,000 gallons per acre per day. 

MECHANICAL FILTRATION. 

The distinctive features of the mechanical process are the coagulant 
and the high rate of filtration. The term " mechanical " is applied 
because of the contrivances for washing the filtering medium; the 
filter is also known as the American filter. While the raw water is 
entering the sedimentation basin, which is smaller than that used 
with slow sand filters, it is treated with a definite proportion of some 
coagulant, which forms by its decomposition a gelatinous precipitate 
that unites and incloses the suspended material, including the bac- 
teria, and that absorbs the organic coloring matter. This combined 
action destroys color and makes suspended particles larger and there- 
fore more readily removable. When aluminum sulphate, the coagu- 
lant most commonly used, is decomposed, aluminum hydrate is pre- 
cipitated and the sulphate radicle remains in solution, replacing an 
equivalent amount of the carbonate, bicarbonate, or hydroxyl radicle. 
The natural alkalinity of many waters is sufficient to effect this reac- 
tion. One part per million of ordinary aluminum sulphate requires 
somewhat more than 0.6 part of alkalinity expressed as CaCOg to 
insure complete decomposition.^. If the alkalinity is not sufficient 
part of the aluminum sulphate remains in solution and good co- 
agulation does not take place. Therefore lime or soda ash is added 
if the alkalinity is too low. The proper amount of aluminum 
sulphate to be used is determined by the amounts of color, organic 
matter, and suspended matter and by the fineness of the suspended 
matter, and it is best ascertained by direct experimentation with the 
water to be purified. Ferrous sulphate instead of aluminum sulphate 
is sometimes used as a coagulant; lime must always be added with 
it in order to bring about proper coagulation. 

The water, after having been mixed with the coagulant, is allowed 
to stand three or four hours in the sedimentation basin, where a 
large proportion of the suspended particles is deposited. It is then 
passed rapidly through beds of sand or ground stone to remove the 
rest of the suspended matter. Many filters now in use are built of 
wood or iron in cylindrical form 10 to 20 feet in diameter, and some 
are so designed that filtration can be hastened by pressure. The sand, 
80 to 60 inches deep, rests on a metallic floor containing perforations 
large enough to allow ready issue of the water, but small enough to 

1 Hazen, Allen, Report of the filtration commlssioQ of the city of Pittsburgh, 1899, p, 57. 



PUKIFICATIOiSr OF WATEK. 195 

prevent passage of sand grains. When the filter has become clogged 
the flow of water is reversed, filtered water being forced upward 
through the sand to wash it and to remove the impurities, which pass 
over the top of the filter with the wasted water. A revolving rake 
with long prongs projecting downward into the sand mixes it during 
washing and prevents it from becoming graded into spots of coarse 
or fine particles. In recently constructed rectangular filters 300 to 
1,300 square feet in area compressed air forced through the sand at 
intervals is used instead of a revolving rake for agitating the sand 
during washing. The rate of filtration is from 80,000,000 to 180,- 
000,000 gallons per acre per day. The time between washings is 6 
to 12 hours, depending principally on the turbidity of the water 
applied to the filter, and 4 to 8 per cent of the filtered water is con- 
sumed in washing. 

Mechanical filtration removes practically all suspended matter, 
reduces the color to an amount that is unobjectionable, and under 
some conditions removes part of the dissolved iron. The permanent 
hardness of the water is increased in proportion to the amount of 
sulphates added as aluminum sulphate, and if only enough lime to 
decompose the coag-ulant is added the total hardness is increased. If 
larger amounts of lime are added, however, the total hardness is re- 
duced. If soda ash is used in place of lime the foaming constitu- 
ents of the water are slightly increased. As this method of filtration 
is used almost entirely for river waters with fluctuating contents of 
suspended and dissolved matter, proper operation requires constant 
and intelligent attention. 

COLD-WATER SOFTENING. 

The principal objects of water softening are to remove the sub- 
stances that cause incrustations in boilers, particularly calcium and 
magnesium, and to neutralize those that cause corrosion. Chemicals 
of knoAvn strength properly dissolved in water are added to the raw 
supply in such proportion as to precipitate all the dissolved constitu- 
ents that can be economically removed by such treatment. The water 
is then allowed to stand long enough to permit the precipitate to 
settle, after which the clear effluent is drawn off or the partly 
cleared effluent may be filtered very rapidly through thin beds of 
coke, sponge, excelsior, wool, or similar material in order to remove 
particles that have not subsided in the tanks. The water softeners 
on the market differ only in the precipitant, in the filtering medium 
if one is used, and in the mechanism regulating the incorporation of 
the chemicals with the water. Among the substances proposed as 
precipitants are sodium carbonate, silicate, hydrate, fluoride, and 
phosphate, barium carbonate, oxide, and hydrate, and calcium oxide, 
but of these substances lime and soda ash are almost exclusively used 
on account of their excellent action and comparative cheapness. 



196 UNDEEGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

When soda ash (NaoCOg) and lime dissolved in water to form a 
solution of calcium hydrate [Ca(0H)2] are added to a water in 
proper proportion free acids are neutralized, free carbon dioxide is 
removed, the bicarbonate radicle is decomposed, and iron, aluminum, 
and magnesium hydrates and calcium carbonate are precipitated. 
The four basic substances are removed to the extent of the solubility 
of these compounds in water ; the calcium added as lime also is pre- 
cipitated, but the sodium from the soda ash remains in solution in 
the softened water. The precipitate in settling takes down with it 
a large proportion of the suspended matter. Such treatment with 
lime and soda ash removes the incrusting constituents. Sodium, 
potassium, sulphates, and chlorides are left in solution, and the 
alkalies are increased in proportion to the quantity of soda ash 
added ; that is, the foaming constituents are increased, and this fixes 
the maximum amount of incrustants that can be treated. The maxi- 
mum amount of incrustants in a treated water is determined by the 
solubility of the precipitated substances and by tjie completeness of 
the reaction between the added chemicals and the dissolved matter. 
The sulphate radicle can be removed by using barium compounds, 
which precipitate barium sulphate, but the poisonous effect of even 
small amounts of barium is a great objection to its use. The 
chlorides are not changed in amount by water softening. The 
chemicals should be very thoroughly mixed with the raw water and 
sufficient time should be allowed for complete reaction, which pro- 
ceeds rather slowly, for otherwise precipitation will occur later in 
pipe lines or in boilers. 

FEED-WATER HEATING. 

Water heaters are designed primarily to utilize waste heat in sta- 
tionary boiler plants by raising the temperature of the feed water 
and thereby lessening the work of the boilers themselves, but they 
effect also some purification, and many heaters have been specially 
constructed with that end in view. The heat is derived from exhaust 
steam or from flue gases ; the heaters utilizing steam either are open — 
that is, operated at atmospheric pressure — or are closed and operated 
at or near boiler pressure. In accordance with these three conditions, 
all of which result in distinct purifying effects, feed-water heaters 
are classified as " open " or " closed " or " economizers," the last 
named being those using flue gases. Open heaters are best adapted 
for removing large quantities of scale- forming material. In most 
forms the steam enters at the bottom and the water at the top, and 
intimate contact between the two is obtained by spraying the water 
or by allowing it to trickle over or to splash against plates. In this 
manner the water is quickly heated nearly to boiling temperature. 
Dissolved gases are expelled, the bicarbonate radicle is decomposed, 
and iron, aluminum, part of the magnesium, and calcium equivalent 
to the carbonates after decomposition of the bicarbonates are precipi- 



PURIFICATION OF WATER. 197 

tated as hydrates, oxides, or carbonates under varying conditions of 
temperature, pressure, and time. The precipitate agglomerates the 
particles of suspended matter and makes them more readily remov- 
able by sedimentation and filtration. The slowness with which the 
reactions take place and the presence of acidic radicles other than car- 
bonates to hold the bases in solution prevent complete removal of 
calcium and magnesium. The addition of soda ash in proper propor- 
tion, however, effects fairly complete precipitation of the alkaline 
earths, and apparatus for constant introduction of this chemical in 
solution may be provided. After the precipitate has been formed 
the water passes through filters of burlap, excelsior, straw, hay, wool, 
coke, or similar materials arranged in units that can be readily 
cleaned. Open heaters operated without a chemical precipitant re- 
move substances that are soft and bulky and leave in the water the 
constituents that form hard scale; scale from water treated in such 
heaters is therefore not so great in amount but is harder than that 
formed by the raw water. 

In closed heaters the water is passed through metal tubes sur- 
rounded by steam or around steam pipes, and manholes or other 
openings are provided for cleaning the scale from the tubes. As 
the water is heated under pressure some precipitation takes place, 
but closed heaters are not nearly so efficient in this respect as open 
heaters, because they do not permit the escape of the gases liberated 
from the water. 

Economizers consist essentially of water tubes set in the flues lead- 
ing from the furnaces. Facilities are provided for cleaning scale 
from the inside and soot from the outside of the tubes. As econo- 
mizers are heated by flue gases, the water in the tubes can be heated 
under boiler pressure to a much higher temperature than in open 
or closed heaters, and boiler conditions described in the section on 
water for boiler use are approximated. The precipitation of in- 
crustants varies greatly with the normally fluctuating temperature 
of the flue gases. 

UNDERGROUND WATERS. 

CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 

The results of analyses of underground waters in southwestern 
Ohio are presented in Table 1, which was prepared by M. L. Fuller. 
The tests by M. L. Fuller, H. N. Parker, and J. R. Evans are field 
assays made in accordance with the methods described in Water- 
Supply Paper United States Geological Survey No. 151, and the 
figures are therefore more or less approximate. The analyses by 
E. B. Dole and M. G. Roberts were performed in the water-testing 
laboratory at Washington. The other analyses originally stated 
in hypothetical combinations in grains per gallon have been recom- 
puted into ionic form in parts per million in order to facilitate 
comparison of the data. 



198 



UNDEKGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



Table 1. — Chemical composition of 
[Parts per million 



Location. 


Source. 


Owner, etc. 


Depth. 


Water-bearing 
foiTnation. 


Date of 
collec- 
tion. a 


Analyst. 


ADAMS COUNTY. 

Blue Creek 

TVTnnphp<;t,pr 


Well.... 
...do 

Spring.. 

Well.... 

...do 

Spring . . 


G. B. Lewis 

Hotel Brit 


Feet. 
35 

67 


Alluvium 

do 

Ohio shale (?). 


Sept. 22 


H.N.Parker 

R. B. Dole and 
M. G. Roberts. 


Mineral Spring 
No. 2. 

Vineyard Hill 

West Union 

Do 


S. R. Grimes 


Martha McHenry.. 
Samuel Charles 


64 
14 


Terrace gravel 

"Niagara" 

do 


Sept 22 


H.N.Parker 

do 

R. B. Dole and 

M. G. Roberts. 

H.N.Parker 

H.N.Parker 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

R. B. Dole and 
M. G. Roberts. 

H.N.Parker 

do 

H.N.Parker 

do 


Winchester 

BROWN COUNTY. 

Browntown 


Well.... 

Well.... 
...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Well.... 
...do 

...do 

...do 

do 


Methodist Church. 

D.O.Dunn 

Burns Bros 

Livery stable 

Schoolhouse 

Harvey Day 

John Young 

Public weU 

do 

J. P. Reed 

Jno. W. Caldwell.. 
Dr. C. A. Clarke... 
Tallewanda Spgs 


25i 

22 
55 

100 
90 
36 
20 

38 

11 
32 

20 
38 


Moraine 

Till 


Sept. 25 

Sept. 22 
Sept. 7 

...do 

Sept. 22 
Sept. 7 
Sept. 22 

Sept. — 

Sept. 22 
Sept. 7 

Sept. 22 
...do 


Chasetown 

Fayette ville 

Higginsport 

Mount Orab 

New Hope 

RussellviUe 


Richmond and 

Maysville, 
do 

Alluvium 

Till 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

Till 


Union Plains 

BUTLER COUNTY. 

Coke Otto 

College Corner 


do 

Alluvium 

do 




Ed Phillips 

Becket Paper Co.. 
Champion Coated 

Paper Co. 
Hamilton Otto 

Coke Co. 
Niles Tool Works. 
Black-Clawson Co. 
Charles Falken- 

stein. 
JohnLody 

Peter Swope 

William Titus 

J. F. Constiner 

Morgan Howells... 
W. A. Gawne 


25 
65-100 
3,120 

65 
59 
24 

25 

42 
12 

85 

14 


Till 


Sept. 22 
Dec. 31 
Sept. — 


H.N.Parker 




Alluvium 

St. Peter 

Alluvium 


Do 

Do 


R. B. Dole and 

M. G. Roberts. 
Hamilton Otto 
Coke Co. 

H.N.Parker 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

M. L. Fuller 

H.N.Parker 

do 


Do . 


Swells.. 
Well.... 
...do 


do 

do 

do 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

Alluvium 

do 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

Till(?) 


Sept. 22 
Sept. 11 
...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Aug. 12 

Sept. 22 


Do 


Mill ville 


Do 

Do 

Do 

Monroe 

New London 


...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Spring.. 

Wells... 
. do 


Oxford 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 


Do 


City supply ..... 




1903 

1904 

Sept. 22 


J. W. EUms 

do 


Do 


do 






Do 

Sevenmile 


...do 

Well.... 
...do 

...do 


Town of Oxford... 
A. Houser 


22-60 
48 
17 

18 

41 
22 
20 
36 
22 
22 


Alluvium 

do 


H.N.Parker 

. ...do 


Symmes Comer... 
Trenton 


J. C. Hoovenden.. 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
Alluvium 

"Niagara".... 

Alluvium 

Till 

do 


...do 

Aug. 30 

Aug. 17 

Aug. 17 
Sept. 7 
Aug. 20 

Sept. 7 
...do 


do 

J. R. Evans 

J. R. Evans. 

H.N. Parker 

do 


CLARK COUNTY. 

Donnels ville 


Well.... 




Eagle City 


...do 

...do 


Gristmill 


Lawrence ville 




North Hampton. . 

Pitchin 

Springfield 

Do 


do 




J. R. Evans 

H.N.Parker 

R. B. Dole and 
M. G. Roberts. 

H.N. Parker 

do 


...do 

...do 


W. B. Kitchen.... 
City supply 

Snyder Park 


do 

Alluvium 

"Niagara"' — 
Gravelly till-. 


Do 


(2 miles southeast 
of city). 


20 









a Dates are 1906 unless otherwise specified. 



b Free acid as H2SO4, 20 parts. 



CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 



199 



waters of southwestern Ohio. 
unless otherwise stated.] 



Silica 

(Si02). 


Iron 

(Fe). 


Cal- 
cium 
(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 

(Na). 


Potas- 
sium 
(K). 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Sul- 
phate 
radicle 
(SO4). 


Nitrate 
radicle 
(NO3). 


Chlorine 
(CI). 


Total 
solids. 


"■"ig""" 

19 

....... 

22 
4.4 


0.0 
Tr. 

Tr. 



.3 



".5 





.2 





3 

50 


'"'is""" 










1 















121 
293 



365 
265 
420 

463 

365 

348 

359 
308 
259 
256 

300 

458 
324 

276 
362 
196 
306 
350 
10 

540 

362 
314 
275 

314 

274 
354 

486 

466 
362 

313 
300 
324 
282 
336 

456 

396 
336 
392 
414 

427 
310 

398 
316 


40 
11 

170 

35 
Tr. 

49 

108 

146 

157 

Tr. 

41 
255 

70 

102 

201 
91 

Tr. 
Tr. 


"ie"'" 
"""54"* 

100 


20 
3.1 

12 

10 
24 

38 

55 

55 
105 

238 
14 

100 
90 

72 

191 
80 

10 
10 
11 
129 
12 
100, 440 

16 

24 
20 
10 

20 

24 
14 

528 

161 
10 

3.6 
2.1 
10 
24 
29 

20 

10 

20 

110 

5 

20 
2.4 

55 
14 




90 
16 


19 
22 


6 

28 


.3 

2.1 


14 
.0 


309 
6 250 














95 


48 


18 


12 


.0 


537 










































































135 


24 


53 


6.7 


.0 


667 






































64 


22 


7 


.0 




121 
39 
740 

63 

140 

68 
47 

95 

Tr. 
56 
(d) 

362 
Tr. 

24 
35 
43 
56 
186 

256 

221 
77 
116 
136 
50 
63 

125 
44 


""2.5 

'"'s.'o' 




87 
15,900 

89 


33 
1,900 

59 


34,700' 
3 


916 
1 


.0 
.0 

.0 


378 
c 138, 900 

540 


































































































79 
68 


20 
24 


2 


4 


.0 
.0 








7.5 




"■"is"' 






1 

2 



Tr. 


Tr. 











































































































88 


32 


7 


.2 


.0 


382 



























Specific gravity, 1.110. 



d More than 850 parts. 



200 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

Table 1. — Chemical composition of 



Location. 


Source. 


Owner, etc. 


Depth. 


Water-bearing 
formation. 


Date of 
collec- 
tion. 


Analyst. 


CLERM ONT 
COUNTY. 


Well . . . . 




Feet. 
20 

42 
26 
20 
30 

23 
70 

70 

65 

1,400 

68 

28 

15 

20 
26 

50 

20 
22 
14 
36 

36 

36 

47 
20 

172 

35 

25 
18 
16 
15 
60 
14 
22 
20 


Richmond and 
Mavsville. 

do 

Till 


Sept. 7 

...do 

...do 


H.N. Parker 

do 

do . 


Bantam 

Bethel 


...do 

...do 


Fair ground 

Town well 

Public well 

Town well 

'pubiicweii'. ".!."!.;! 

Town well 

do 

(Test well for gas 
ana oil). 


Edenton 

Felicity 

Loveland 

Matord 


...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


Alluvium 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

Alluvium 

do 


...do 

...do 

Aug. 30 
Aug. 22 

Sept. 22 

' Sept "7' 

Sept. 22 
Sept. 7 

Aug. 24 

Sept. 7 
...do 

Sept. 7 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Sept. 11 

Sept. 20 

Sept. 11 
Sept. 7 
...do 

Aug. 28 

1898 
1899 
1900 
1898 
1898 
Aug. 17 
1893 
1902 
1902 

(Old) 


do 

do 

J. R. Evans 

R. B. Dole and 
M. G. Roberts. 

H.N. Parker 

do 

do 

do 

do 

R.B. Dole and M. 
G. Roberts. 

H.N.Parker 

do 

H.N.Parker 

do 

do 

do 


Moscow 


...do 


do 


Neville 

New Richmond... 

Do 


...do 

...do 

...do 


do 

St. Peter 

Alluvium 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 

do 

Till 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

Till 

do 

do 

do 

Richmond and 
Mavsville. 

do 

Till 


Newton ville 


...do 




Tobasco 


...do 




West Woodville.. 
Williamsburg 

CLINTON COUNTY. 

Blanchester 

Clarksville 

Cuba 

Midland 


...do 

...do 

WeU.... 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...dob...; 


Public well 

Curry's livery sta- 
ble. 

R. F. Botts 

Town well 

Dan Hopewell 

W. S. Huston 

Charles Hartman 
rolling mill. 

do 

Town well 

David Jenks 

Public supply 


New Burlington.. 
Do.. . . 


R. B. Dole and M. 

G. Roberts. 
do 

do 

H.N. Parker 

do 

R.B. Dole and M. 
G. Roberts. 

C. B. Dudley 

do 


Do 


...do&.... 


Oakland 


.do 


Ogden.... 

Wilmington 

D.A.RKE COUNTY. 


...do 

...do 

Well 


Richmond and 

Maysville. 
Till 




Do... . 


...do 






Do 


...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

.do 


■j.b; Young.".".:;:: 




.do 


Do. 




do 


Do 




. .do 


Pitsburg 

Woodington 


"Niagara" — 


J. R.Evans 

C. B. Dudley 

do 

.. ..do. . . 


Do 


do 






Do 


do 






GREENE COUNTY. 

Bellbrook 


Sprmg.. 
Well.... 

do 


Bellbrook magnet- 
ic spring. 

Bager Straw- 
Board & Paper 
Co. 






Cedarville 


1,500 

14 
65 

1,776 

19 
35 

40 
138 

70 

80 
Both sa 


"Niagara" 




Clifton 


do 

do 

St. Peter 


'ILL 


H.N.Parker 

do 


Jamestown 

Do 


...do 

do 


Methodist parson- 

"f7 7 6 Mineral 
Spring." 


Xenia 


do .. 




1902 
Aug. 25 

1901 
1901 
1901 

Aug. — 
Aug. 30 


C. B. Dudley 

R.B. Dole aiidM. 
G. Roberts. 

C.B.Dudley 

do 


Do 


Spring.. 
Well.... 


City supply 


Till 


Do 




Do 


...do 

...do 

Well.... 

Well.... 
e than 850 


' Nefl Groiiii'ds Park 
Public well 

Farm well 




Yellow Springs . . . 
Do 


"Niagara" — 
do 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 

mples from same 


R.B. Dole and M. 

G. Roberts. 
H.N.Parker 

J.R.Evans 


HAMILTON COUNTY 

Blue Ash 


oMor 


parts. & 


1 

well; see page 95. 



CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 



201 



waters of southwestern Ohio — Continued. 



SiUca 
(SiOz). 


Iron 
(Fe). 


Cal- 
cium 
(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 

(Na). 


Potas- 
sium 
(K). 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCO3) 


Sul- 
phate 
radicle 
(SO4). 


Nitrate 
radicle 
(NO3). 


Chlorine 
(CI). 


Total 
solids. 


■"'21'" 
14 

"26'"" 

9.0 
14 

19 




.5 
.3 





2 
.1 



1 





.2 










.1 
11 

.3 



.3 












206 

391 
372 
451 
414 

420 
342 

384 
360 
414 

326 
330 

427 

365 
398 

443 

470 
266 
442 
333 

229 

332 
379 
443 

297 


229 

124 
313 

168 
362 

146 
17 

46 
185 
626 

47 

(a) 

274 

229 
138 

530 

66 
71 
181 
80 

9.9 

209 
56 
71 

48 


""27"" 

5.0 



""62""' 
.0 
60 

3.5 


39 

25 
171 

70 
373 

10 
7.2 

10 

40 

92,920 

10 
191 

302 

181 
216 

20 

20 

65 
105 
102 

15,000 

280 
10 
75 

6.0 

60 
119 
32 
42 
21 
10 

6.8 
69 

8.9 

8.8 
12 

30 
50 

17,110 

7.5 
2.2 

19 
5.5 
2.5 

151 
210 


































































87 


24 


] 


3 


.0 


359 




















































179 


80 


U 


24 


.0 


1,203 































































122 

1,100 

171 


35 
268 
37 


48 

5,750 

144 


3.5 
34 
31 


6.2 

.0 

5.8 


637 

20,150 

1,132 














72 


41 


9 


6 


.0 


340 
601 






















1,057 






















615 






















650 






















502 




1 












438 


56 

















483 






















714 






















542 


11 




112 
1 


36 

.7 


5.9 
2 


8.2 
1 


.0 
.0 


501 
392 

372 
470 

329 


25 




459 

484 


69 



2.5 

57 


49 
94 

2,015 




















2,351 


854 


7,951 


90 


.0 


c 33, 658 
445 


19 


Tr. 


77 


29 


6. 


1 


.0 


338 


9.9 


20 


332 
465 






















367 


24 


1.4 
Tr. 


89 


37 


6. 


9 


.0 
.0 


406 
412 

462 


16 
66 

246 


... . 
.1 


394 





























c Organic and volatile matter 2,431; sulphur (S), 55; hydrogen sulphide (H2S), 377; thiosulphate radicle 
(S2O3), 18; bromine (Br.) 422; iodine (I), 73; traces of barium (Ba) and phosphates (PO4); free carbon diox- 
ide (CO3), 68 parts per million. 



202 UNDEEGBOUND WATEBS OF SOUTH WESTEBN OHIO. 

Table 1. — Chemical composition of 



Location. 


Source. 


Owner, etc. 


Depth. 


Water-bearing 
formation. 


Date of 
collec- 
tion. 


Analyst. 


HAMILTON COUN- 
TY— Continued. 

Camp Dennison.. 
Carthage 


Well.... 
Wells... 
Well.... 

...do 

Wells(6) 

Wells(2) 
Well.... 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do..... 
...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


Well at store 

Public supply 

Cincinnati Gas 

Works. 
Sulphosaline 

Clifton Springs 

Distilling Co. 

do 

American Oak 

LeatherCo.No.l. 
American Oak 

LeatherCo.No.2. 
American Oak 

LeatherCo.No.3. 

Banner Ice Co 

Crystal Springs 

Ice Co. 
Foss-Schneider 

Brewing Co. 

do 

French Brothers 

Dairy Co. 
Gambrino Stock 

Co. 

do 

Gibson House well 

Grand Hotel 

James Heakin Co. . 
Joseph Joseph Bros 
Jung Brewing Co. . 

John Kaufman 
Brewing Co. • 

Keeling and Bridge 

Kirchm er Con- 
struction Co. 

A. Lander Pack- 
ing Co. 

John H. McGow- 
an Co. 

Moerleln Brewing 

Co. 
do 


Feet. 

18 

135 

1,245 

240 

100 

1,917 
180 


Alluvium 

Glacial gravels 
St. Peter 

*'Birdseye"... 

Alluvium (?).. 

St. Peter 

Point Pleasant 


Aug. 30 

...do.... 

(Old) 

(Old) 

Sept. 22 

...do 

..do.... 

do .. 


J.R.Evans 

do 

E.S.Wayne 

do 

H.N.Parker 

do 

H.N.Parker 

do 


Cincinnati 

Do 

Do 


Do 


Do 


Do 


Do 






.do 


. .do 


Do 


80 
150 

85 

88 
176 

284 

264 
370? 
100 
90 
180 
305 

215 

198 
90 

180 


Alluvium 


..do 


do 


Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 


Point Pleasant 

Alluvium 

do 

PointPleasant 

PomtPleasant 
and "Birds- 
eye." 

do 

do 

Alluvium (?).. 

do 

Point Pleasant 
Point Pleasant 
and " Birds- 
eye." 
Point Pleasant 

do 

Alluvium 

Point Pleasant 


...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Sept. 11 

Sept. 22 
...do 


do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 


Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 


do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 


Do 

Bo 


...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


85 

2,408 
60 
68 
140 
100 

85 
90 

140 

100 
150 

15 
60 

170 

35 

201 

24 
30 
114 


Alluvium 

St. Peter 


...do 


do 


6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 c 

ftftftft ftftft ft ft 


National Lead Co. 
Ohio ButterineCo . 

Palace Hotel 

Riverside Malting 

and Elevator Co. 

Roth& Co 

J. Schlachter 

Standard Marble 

Works. 
Walker Brewing 

Co. 

do 

Crystal Springs 

Philip Wernsing.. 

White Star Laun- 
dry. 

Windisch - Muhl- 
hausen Brewing 
Co. 

Cmcinnati North- 
ern Traction Co, 

C. D. and 0. C. 
Peter's Ice Co. 

W. T. Simpson.... 

Fred Schmelch.... 

Laidlaw - Dunn- 
Gordon Works. 


Alluvium 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 


Sept. 22 

'.'.'aI'.V.V. 

...do 

...do 

...do 

-^« 

...do 

...do 

1905 

Sept. 22 

...do 

Sept. 8 

Sept. — 

...do 

Sept. 8 
Sept. — 


H.N.Parker 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 


Do 


...do 

...do.. 


Dearborn Chem- 
ical Co. 

H.N.Parker 

do 

do 

do 

R. B. Dole and 

M. G. Roberts. 

do 

H.N.Parker 

R. B. Dole and 
M. G. Roberts. 


Do 


Alluvium 

do 

Point Pleas- 
ant. 

Till 


Do 

Do 

College Hill 

Do 

Do 

Creedville 

Elmwood 


...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


Richmond and 
Maysville. 

'.'.'.'.'.do'.'.V.'.'.'.V. 
Glacial gravels 



a Strong odor of hydrogen sulphide. 

h Iodine (I), 4.7; bromine (Br), 5.8; phosphate radicle (PO4), 16; organic and volatile matter, 13 parts per 
million; odor of hydrogen sulphide. 



CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 

waters of southwestern Ohio — Continued. 



203 



Silica 
(SiOz). 


Iron 
(Fe). 


Cal- 
cium 

(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 
(Na). 


Potas- 
sium 
(K). 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 

(CO3). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Sul- 
phate 
radicle 

(SO4). 


Nitrate 
radicle 

(NO3). 


Chlorine 
(CI). 


Total 
solids. 
















384 
630 
553 

630 

422 

504 
518 

607 

780 

707 
479 

G29 

679 
563 

587 

468 
445 
304 
397 
494 
607 

521 

378 
298 

630 

401 

728 

1,273 

554 

514 

68 

420 

467 
384 
600 

504 

550 
467 

511 
504 

707 

348 

610 

526 
451 
320 


138 
154 
329 

375 

154 

460 
328 

287 

197 

383 
Tr. 

406 

362 
344 

Tr. 

Tr. 
130 
138 
186 
146 
300 

202 

Tr. 

Tr. 

362 
191 
383 

375 

287 

287 

46 

103 

383 
Tr. 

287 

Tr. 

Tr. 
36 

276 
215 

431 

Tr. 

367 

678 
47 
18 


.0 
30 
'5" 


80 

30 

5,891 

6,042 

218 

Much. 
238 

538 

420 

218 

289 

228 

239 
319 

1,073 

400 
218 
146 
202 
60 
214 

1,022 

10 
10 

260 

308 

268 

6,043 

106 

202 

14 

34 

218 
20 
176 

760 

380 
233 

106 
120 

242 

34 

702 

47 
152 
6.5 




""8.'4" 
14 



........ 



14 


Tr. 

4.4 

5.2 

1 


5 

10 

9 

6.5 

7 

2.5 

4 
15 

Tr. 

.5 
10 
Tr. 
Tr. 
11 
11 


.5 

20 



1 

5.2 



2.5 














394 
417 


120 
122 


3,504 
3,614 


29 
53 


.0 
.0 


10,567 
10,992 




























































































































































































































. 














































417 


121 


3,615 


53 


.0 


610,992 



























""9."9" 

13 

27 

*'"26"'" 


.5 

I 



Tr. 






1 

Tr. 

53 

.05 

.2 



















i 




















i 










i 










1 
1 






109 


35 


1. 


)3 


.0 


C820 






































212 
265 


94 
120 


3( 


)3 
J7 


.0 
14 


1,990 
1,480 


70 


24 




8 




6 


.0 


293 



c Organic and volatile matter, 16 parts; oxides of iron and alummum (re203+ AljOg), 20 parts. 



204 UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

Table 1. — Chemical composition of 



Location. 


Source. 


Owner, etc. 


Depth. 


Water-bearing 
formation. 


Date of 
collec- 
tion. 


Analyst. 


HAMILTON COUN- 
TY— continued. 

Harrison 


Well.... 

Wells(4) 

Well.... 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


George Dole 

Harrison Water & 

Light Co. 
Town hall 


Feet. 
100-1- 

40 

32 
110 
25 


Alluvium 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Glacial gravel. 
do 


Sept. 8 

...do 

...do 

Sept. 22 
Aug. 30 

1901 

1906 

1882 

Aug. 30 
Aug. 23 

...do 

Aug. 26 
Aug. 30 
Sept. 22 

Aug. 30 

...do 


R. B. Dole and 

M. G. Roberts. 

do 

do 

do 

J. R. Evans 

J.E.Weber 

do 


Do 


Do 


Do 

Hartwell 


T. P. Oyler 

Store 


Ivorj^dale 


Procter & Gamble. 
do 

Eikenbrecker salt 

well. 
Public supply 


'""27i' 

150 
30 

30 
260 
35 
90 

95 


Ludlow Grove 


...do 

...do 

...do.... 


E. S. Wayne 

J. R. Evans 

R. B. Dole and 
M. G. Roberts. 

do 

do 

J. R. Evans 

H.N. Parker 

J. R. Evans 

do 


Madisonvme 

Mount Washing- 
ton. 

Do 

Norwood 

Oakley 

Riverside 

Rossmoyne 

St. Bernard 


Glacial gravel. 
Old gravels 

Edenshale(?). 
Glacial gravel. 

do 

Terrace gravel 

or alluvium. 
Richmond and 

Maysville. 
Alluvium 


...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


Public supply 

Fleishman Distil- 
ling Co. 
Store. 


Public supply 


Do 


Wells.. 


do 






1905 
Aug. — 

Aug. 25 
Sept. 11 


J. W. EUms 

R. B. Dole and 

M. G. Roberts. 

do 

H.N.Parker 

R. B. Dole and 
M. G. Roberts. 

do 

H. N.Parker 

A. Lasche 


Valley Junction.. 
Wyoming 

HIGHLAND 
COUNTY. 

East Monroe 


Well.... 
...do 

Well.... 
...do 

...do.'.;;; 

Spring . . 


Clif. Walker estate. 
Public supply 

Town 


65 
104-197 

45 
45 


Alluvium 

do 

"Niagara".... 
Alluvium 


Hillsboro 


City supply 

John L. WesC 


Do 


"Niagara" — 

do 

St. Peter 


Sept. — 
Sept. 11 


IvCesburg 


Dewey Bros. Co... 
Freiberg & Wor- 
kum Distillery. 
do 


112 
1,534 


Lynchburg 

Do 




1905 

1905 

Sept. 11 

;;;do;;;;; 

...do 

1902 

1900 
Aug. 17 

...do 

.do 


do 

do 


Do 


...do 


Town 






Marshall. 


Well.... 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Well 


W.A.Elliott 

Town 


18 
60 
30 
42 

60 
24 
25 

45 
9 


Till 


H.N.Parker 

do 

do 

do 

C.B.Dudley 

do 


Newmarket 


"Niagara".... 

do 

Till 


New Petersburgh. 
Pricetown 

MIAMI COUNTY. 

Fletcher 


D. R. Cunningham 
J.W.Abraham... 


Do 


...do 






Laura 

Ludlow 

Potsdam 


...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

do. 


H. H. Coppock.... 
H.O. Miles 


Till 

"Niagara".... 
Till.. 


J. R. Evans 

do 

do 

do 

do 

R. B. Dole and 

M. G. Roberts. 

J. R. Evans 

R. B. Dole and 

M. G.Roberts. 

J. W. Ellms 

J. R. Evans 

R. B. Dole and 
M. G. Roberts. 

J. R. Evans 

do 

do 

do 


Rex 

1 mile northVr^est 


"Clinton".... 
Moraine 


Aug. 18 
. .do 


of Rex. 
Tippecanoe 


- .do.. 


Public supply 


55 


Alluvium 

"Clinton'.... 
.. do 


Aug. 21 

Aug. 18 

Aug. 22 

1902 

Aug. 15 
Aug. 23 

Aug. 18 
Aug. 15 

...do 

...do 


5 miles northeast 


...do 


of Tippecanoe. 
West Milton 


Spring.. 
...do 


Public supply 




Do 








MONTGOMERY 
COUNTY. 

Bachman 


Well.... 
Wells... 

Well.... 


Mr. Hammel 

City 


35 


Till 




"Niagara" 

"Clinton' .... 

"Niagara" 

Alluvium 

do 


Centerville 






Clayton 


do 




51 

4.5-48 
54 

30-60 


Dayton 


Wells(6) 
Well.... 
...do 

...do 

Wells... 


^Etna Paper Mill.. 

BrownellCo 

Davis Sewing Ma- 
chine Co. 

National Cash 
Register. 

Public supply 


Do... 


Do 

Do 

Do 


do 

do 

do 


1900 

1906 

Mar. 7 


A.C. Ehrenfelt.... 

W. B. Scaife & 

Sons. 
J. W. Elhns 



a Less than 5 parts. 



CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 

waters of southwestern Ohio — Continued. 



205 



Silica 

(Si02). 


Iron 
(Fe). 


Cal- 
cium 
(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 

(Na). 


Potas- 
sium 
(K). 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Sul- 
phate 
radicle 
(SO.). 


Nitrate 
radicle 
(NO3). 


Chlorine 
(CI). 


Total 
solids. 


'"ie" 

18 
21 


.8 





Tr. 

"m"" 












354 

290 

336 
247 
390 
390 
366 
479 

426 
459 

270 
348 
408 
406 

510 

672 
406 
324 

314 

334 
366 

273 
355 
329 

164 
165 
305 
380 
443 
330 


38 
35 

42 
Tr. 
136 

45 

44 
73 

35 

46 

50 
23 
138 
Tr. 

344 

68 
40 
46 

19 

41 
51 

2.0 
66 
66 

41 
40 
70 
Tr. 

78 
113 




"'"8."6" 

16 
.6 

'"'3i""' 

.9 

■ ■ ■j.-j.- • • 
16 


10 

10 

14 
10 
30 
12 
35 
60,638 

30 
25 

13 
2.2 
165 
20 

100 

40 
12 
8.9 

10 

14 
2.9 

1.8 
20 
533 

3.5 
5.3 

55 
55 

85 
24 

1.5 
8.9 
(a) 
40 
47 
20 
10 

6.5 

10 

1.3 

3.0 

141 
3.0 

126 
86 
25 
10 
13 

38 

n 




















































102 

95 

4,936 


27 

27 

2,436 


8.1 

21 

29, 112 

L 


.0 
.0 
.0 




426 
98,222 


25 

16 

48 


.3 

1.9 
.2 
2 
Tr. 

Tr. 

Tr. 


128 

80 
72 


25 

17 
26 


2 

1 
1 


5 
4 


.0 

.0 
.0 


516 

346 
353 






































101 
96 

70 


24 

28 

23 


18 
10 

13 
1 


.0 
.0 

.0 




17 
38 

""is " 

16 


.1 
2.2 

Tr. 
.2 

Tr. 



1.0 

1.2 

1.0 



Tr. 






388 
318 


90 
52 


30 
32 


7.0 

4.7 
I 


Tr. 
7.0 


371 

242 


86 

11 


30 

29 
29 


3^ 

2.3 
3.5 


17 


.0 


1,392 
390 






371 






















































493 






















476 




1 












544 
276 
390 
461 
374 

313 

413 

305 


76 
362 
186 
102 
102 

36 

53 

8.4 
15 

176 
22 

208 
168 
168 
116 
81 

78 

53 


8.0 
25 

■""i.'o* 

48 
















12 
13 


2 

Tr. 

2 

.1 

Tr. 

.2 







































77 


27 


7 


8 


.0 


342 


60 
59 


33 

40 


6 


3 


.0 


290 


""2i"" 

18 
16 



.6 

Tr. 
1 
4 
2 
.5 

Tr. 








535 
343 

535 
389 
341 
365 




84 


46 


1 


7 


.0 


420 






































110 
148 
53 


43 
52 
28 










( 
2 


1 


.0 


459 
270 


635 



206 UNDEKGROUND WATEES OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 

Table 1. — Chemical composition of 



Location. 


Source. 


Owner, etc. 


Depth. 


Water-bearing 
formation. 


Date of 
collec- 
tion. 


Analyst. 


MONTGOMERY 

COUNTY — contd. 


Well.... 
...do 

...do 

...do 


Mr. Smith 


Feet. 
40 
50 

78 
24 
45 
98 
32 
35 
17 
60 

50 


Till 


Aug. 15 
Aug. 17 

Aug. 15 
.. do 


J. R. Evans 


Englewood 

Farmersville 


W. L. Weyner.... 
John Holt 


"Clinton," 
Richunond, 
and Mays- 
ville. 

Till 


do 

do 

do . . . 


FortMcKinley... 
Kinsey 

Krietzer Corner . 




do 


...do 

...do 

...do 


Wm. Kinsey 

John Hill 

Andylsble 

W.E.Snyder 

G. W. Fair 

Public supply 


"Clinton".... 
Till 


Aug. 17 
Aug. 15 
...do 


do 

do 

do 


Do 


do 

do 

do 

Alluvium 

do 

"Clinton" 


Do 

Little York 

Miamisburg 


...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

.. do 


...do 

Aug. 17 
Aug. 28 

Aug. 15 
.. do . 


do 

do 

R. B. Dole and 
M. G. Roberts. 


New Germany.... 
Do 

Oakridge 


...'. do 




...do 

. do . 




30 
66 
18 
30 
28 
32 
60 
93 

25 
65 

130± 
31 

80-85 

95 
29 

18 
34 
15 


do 

Till 


Aug. 17 
Aug. 18 
Aug. 17 
Aug. 15 

...do 

Aug. 17 
Aug. 15 
Aug. 18 

Aug. 15 
Aug. 28 

Sept. 22 
...do 


do 

... do 




Phillipsburg 

Pyrmont 

St. Richmond.... 

Sixmile 

Trotwood 


...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Wells... 

Well.... 

...do 

...do 

Well.... 
...do 


School well 

Mr. Bower 

Wm. Fairbanks... 

D. Kleppinger 

City.. ... 


do 

do 

do 

do 

Alluvium 

"C lint on," 
Richmond, 
and Mays- 
viUe. 

Till 


do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 




Union 


T. P. Eby 


Wengerlawn 

WestCarroUton.. 

PREBLE COUNTY. 


Mr. Gray . . 


do 

R. B. Dole and 
M. G. Roberts. 

H.N.Parker 


Public supply 

EdGingerich 

Town 


Alluvium 

AUuvium 

do 


Do 


do 

do 

C.B.Dudley 

R. B. Dole and 

M. G. Roberts. 

C. B. Dudley 


Eaton 


Wells... 
Well . 


Eaton Water- 
works. 


do 


Sept. 25 

1896 
Sept. 20 

1893 
Sept. 25 

1898 
Sept. 25 

Aug. 12 

...do 

Sept. 25 

(?) 
Sept. 25 
...do 


Do . . 


Do 

Do 


...do 

...do 


Jonathan Flora 


Moraine 


Do 


...do 

. do 


Frank Siebert 


Moraine 


H. N. Parker 


Do 


C. B. Dudley 








"Niagara" 

Richmond and 

MaysviUe. 
do 

Moraine 

do 


H. N. Parker 


of Eaton. 


Well..... 




28 

. 25 

17 


J. R. Evans 


3 miles southeast 

of Greenbush. 
New Paris 


...do 

...do 

Springs . 
Spring.. 
.. do ... 


C.W. Bloom 

Cedar Springs 


do 

H. N. Parker 


Do 


J.N. Hurty 


Do* 


Rftinhm'TTipr Bros . 




"Niagara" 

do 


H.N.Parker 

do 


Do 


do 




Do 


Well.... 
.. do 


Henrietta Wilcox. 
Store 


24 
30 
112 

16 


. .. do 


.. do ... 


do 




Gravel in till.. 
Moraine 

do 

"Clinton" 

Richmond and 
Maysville. 

Alluvium 

do 


Aug. 15 
Sept. 18 

Sept. 22 

Sept. 7 

Aug. 12 
Aug. 30 
Sept. 7 
Aug. 28 

Sept. 7 
Aug. 29 

Sept. 7 
Aug. 27 

...do 


J. R. Evans 


West Alexandria. 
West Elkton 


...do 

...do 

...do 

Well.... 
...do 


S.S. Black 

Elijah Mendenhall 
Town 


R. B. Dole and 

M. G. Roberts. 

H.N. Parker 


Do 


do 

H.N.Parker 


WARREN COUNTY. 

Butterville 

Camp Hagerman. 
Franklin 


T. H. Starkey 

Valley Packing Co. 
Public supply 


30 

66 
63 
25 
30 

20 
485 

22 
70 

40 


J. R. Evans 


Harvey sburg 

Kings Mills 


Well 


Till 


H.N.Parker 

R. B. Dole and 
M. G. Roberts. 

H.N.Parker 

R. B. Dole and 
M. G. Roberts. 

H.N. Parker 

do 

do 


...do 

.. do 


Homestead Hotel. 


do 

Alluvium 

Till 


Mason 


do 


Oil well 


Morrow 


do 




Alluvium 

Richmond and 

Maysville. 
do 




.. do... 




WaynesviUe. 


...do 


City supply 





a Less than 5 parts. 



CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 

waters of southivestern Ohio — Continued. 



207 



Silica 

(Si02). 


Iron 
(Fe). 


Cal- 
cium 
(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 

(Na). 


Potas- 
siiim 
(K). 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 

(CO3). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Sul- 
phate 
radicle 
(SO,). 


Nitrate 
radicle 

(NO3). 


Chlorine 

(CI). 


Total 
solids. 




Tr. 












461 
440 

535 
559 
432 
240 
461 
607 
392 
332 

365 
438 
396 
480 
456 
510 
535 
372 
413 
533 

413 
294 

259 
288 
301 


191 
124 

64 
106 
106 
362 




80 
30 

20 
86 
20 

% 

12 

(a) 
945 

24 
101 

60 

91 

66 

30 

% 

185 
2.9 

50 
10 
20 

64 

2.8 

37 
10 
43 
10 

81 

30 

10 
12 
10 
10 
24 
646 
5.9 

10 
130 

171 

Tr. 
20 
14 
5.0 

14 
94 

45 
50 

10 
















is' 


9 

1.5 
Tr. 

2 
Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 

.5 
Tr. 

1 
Tr. 

1 
Tr. 
Tr. 

1 

2 

4 


.1 

Tr. 




















1 










1 




















[ 




150 1 

113 1 

104 

51 17 

70 

154 








::::::::|:::::::: 
















88 


31 


1 





.0 


399 
























222 
106 
154 
300 
208 
98 
91 
222 

222 
29 

108 
44 
Tr. 


■"io"' 





































































































70 


25 


1 


2 


.0 


316 




































548 


19 


2.8 


70 


28 


1 


5 


.0 


361 


13 


Tr. 


322 
479 




1.8 












337 


Tr. 
















487 


ie" 

26' 

2i' 

26' 




.3 

.1 



2.9 



Tr. 
1.0 

3.8 




3 
Tr. 
Tr. 
.3 


1.2 


.3 














272 

437 

269 

343 
403 
312 
316 
373 
607 
396 

434 
486 

330 

437 
432 
206 
355 

294 
438 

353 

284 

342 


Tr. 

83 

64 

61 
25 
43 
38 
68 
208 
2.1 

Tr. 
Tr. 

(b) 

Tr. 
276 
Tr. 

87 

64 

.7 

108 
94 

60 


""4.'6' 

'"u" 

""I'.O 








































88 


32 


i 


i 


.0 


383 






































62 


28 


32 


2.4 


.0 


344 































































102 


31 


12 

!_._._._. 


.0 


463 


64 


28 


8 


5 


.0 


510 







































b More than 850 parts. 



208 



UNDERGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



RELATION OF QUALITY TO WATER-BEARING STRATUM. 



The principal water-bearing strata in most of the wells of whose 
waters analyses are given in Table 1 comprise, as noted by Fuller, 
the alluvium, the sands and gravels of the glacial deposits, the till, 
the " Niagara " and " Clinton " limestones, the limestones and shales 
of the Eichmond and Maysville formations, the Point Pleasant for- 
mation, and the St. Peter sandstone. Other formations yield some 
water, but sufficient information regarding the quality of their 
waters is not at hand. After the analyses had been grouped in ac- 
cordance with the formations noted by Fuller, the figures repre- 
senting the amounts of the principal constituents were averaged. 
The averages, rounded off to avoid appearance of fictitious accuracy, 
are given in Table 2, the first part of which shows the chemical com- 
position of the waters in parts per million and the second the per- 
centage composition of the anhydrous residues. 

Table 2. — Chemical composition in relation to geologic strata. 
Mineral content in paxts per million. 



Principal 

water-bearing 

stratum. 


Num- 
ber of 
analy- 
ses av- 
eraged. 


Silica 

(Si02). 


Iron 
(Fe). 


Cal- 
cium 
(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 

and 
potas- 
sium 
(Na-H 

K). 


Carbon- 
ate rad- 
icle 
(CO3). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
rad- 
icle 
(HCO3) 


Sul- 
phate 
rad- 
icle 
(SO4). 


Chlo- 
rine- 
(Cl). 


Total 
solids. 


Alluvium 

Gravel 


63 

17 
40 
20 

7 

25 
12 
6 


15 
25 
20 
20 
15 

20 

30' 


1 

1 

.5 
.5 
.2 

.2 

7 
10 


90 
90 
100 
80 


30 
30 
40 
40 


26" 

50 
20 













380 
400 
400 
360 
430 

380 
530 
350 


100 
50 

140 
80 

100 

300 
190 
700 


60 
25 
90 
25 
50 

160 

360 

36,000 


500 
440 


TiU 


640 


"Niagara" 

"Clinton" . 


440 


Richmond and 
Maysville 


190 


70 


140 


1,100 


St. Peter 


5,000 


800 


14,000 


57,000 



Percentage composition of anhydrous residue. 



Alluvium . . 




3 

6 
3 
4 








18 
20 
16 
18 


6 
7 
6 
9 


a4 
5 
8 
5 


37 
45 
31 
40 




20 
11 
22 

18 


12 
6 

14 
6 




Gravel 






Till 












"Clinton" 






Richmond and 
Maysville 




2 





, 18 


6 


13 


18 




28 


15 




Point Pleasant 






St. Peter 










9 


2 


25 







1 


63 











a Estimated. 



Definite general conclusions regarding the chemical composition of 
the waters from the several water-bearing strata must be made with 
extreme caution. Consideration of the conditions under which the 
samples were collected and tested makes this evident. It is by no 
means certain that water from a well is a fair average sample of 
the water from a single sharply differentiated water-bearing stratum ; 
indeed it is certain that many wells in this region are supplied from 
two or more distinct beds, A§ the primary purpose of the well 



CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 209 

driller is to obtain an abundant supply he usually does not attempt to 
shut out any water that he may encounter except possibly that near 
the surface, which is known to be polluted. Consequently any deep 
well that penetrates more than one water-bearing stratum is likely 
to yield a mixture and though one kind of water may predominate 
the other kinds modify its quality by diluting it or by increasing its 
mineral content. Even if all the supplies but one were excluded 
during construction subsequent deterioration of the casing might 
cause holes and cracks through which they could enter. It is possible 
also that wxUs drawing water from one stratum may not afford 
samples that are typical of that stratum over a wide area, as seepage 
from other strata may cause local changes in character. Especially 
might such modification occur in the waters of the alluvium, which 
could be locally and also intermittently affected by entrance of water 
from near-by formations whose supplies are under greater hydrostatic 
pressure. The water entering shallow wells is intermittently modified 
by the diluting effect of rain, and deep wells may be indirectly but 
appreciably affected by similar dilution. Last but not by any means 
least important is the recognized fact that the draft on a well 
affects the quality of the water; such influence has been noticed by 
different observers in widely separated districts. The water from 
most new wells contains more mineral matter than that from the same 
wells after they have been used for some time. Waters from strata 
on which there is heavy draft are commonly lower in mineral 
content than those in strata not under heavy draft, probably be- 
cause of the decreased duration of contact of the waters with the 
minerals; increased draft on some wells, however, results in in- 
creased mineral content, a phenomenon doubtless due to percolation 
of strongly mineralized waters from contiguous formations. No 
figures for the bases appear in many of the analyses in Table 1, and 
this lack of data casts still more uncertainty on general conclusions. 
After consideration of all these circumstances it can readily be under- 
stood that statements regarding the quality of the waters can not be 
interpreted too literally, and it is not surprising to find in Table 1 
great variations in the chemical composition of waters presumably 
from the same bed. 

WATERS OF LOW MINERAL CONTENT. 

The most noticeable feature in Table 2 is the great similarity in 
composition of the waters from the alluvium, gravel, till, " Niagara," 
and " Clinton." The averages indicate that they are all alkaline- 
saline waters with calcium and bicarbonates predominating but with 
appreciable amounts of magnesium, sulphates, and chlorides. The 
49130°— wsp 259—12 14 



^210 



UNDEKGKOUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



similarity in composition is brought out still more forcibly in the 
second part of the table, in which the statement in percentage of 
anhydrous residue removes the differences due to dilution. The 
waters are practically alike in their proportionate contents of cal- 
cium, magnesium, and the alkalies. The combined carbonic acid ex- 
ceeds all other negative radicles in amount; it is present almost in- 
variably in the bicarbonate form with free carbon dioxide, and when 
any normal carbonates occur they are very small in amount. Ac- 
cording to the averages the waters in the till are most strongly min- 
eralized, and study of the separate analyses seems to confirm this con- 
clusion, many of them showing high chlorides and sulphates. The 
waters of the gravels apparently are lowest in their relative amounts 
of chlorides and sulphates. The greatest differences between the 
waters occur in the proportion of chlorides. 

Examination of the individual analyses in Table 1 affords addi- 
tional proof not only that these waters are all of the same type but 
also that the wells yield from the same formation waters more radi- 
cally different from each other than the averages of the analyses of 
waters from different formations ; thus it can be seen that the sources 
of supply in the alluvium, gravel, till, and upper limestones can not 
be differentiated from the data at hand. The normal variations of 
bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and total solids of waters from 
these strata are given in Table 3. Some evidently erroneous figures 
have been omitted from consideration and some of the amounts 
are estimates. The figures opposite the designation " approximate 
mean " have been rounded off to avoid fictitious accuracy. 

Table 3. — Differences in mineral content of wells in southwestern Ohio. 

[Parts per million.] 



Source of water. 


Bicarbonate radi- 
cle (HCO3). 


Sulphate radicle 
(SO4). 


Chlorine (Cl). 


Total solids. 




Highest. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Lowest. 


Alluvium 


679 
630 
607 
470 
535 


121 
320 
206 
265 
. 305 


406 
154 
362 
362 
222 


Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 


380 
165 
216 
86 
126 


Tr. 
2 
2 
3 
1 


635 
516 
637 
637 
700 


309 


Gravel 


293 


Till 


332 


"Niagara" 

"Cliuton" 


242 
290 






Approximate mean.. 


600 


240 


300 


Tr. 


200 


2 


600 300 



These figures give the highest and lowest amounts of certain sub- 
stances according to the analyses in Table 1. The information re- 
garding the amounts of calcium, magnesium, and sodium is insuffi- 
cient to justify similar figures for them, but the amounts of the bases 
are roughly proportional to the amounts of the acids. The supplies 



CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 211 

from these strata range from 300 to 600 parts per million of total 
solids and they may contain from 2 to 200 parts of chlorides, from a 
trace to 300 parts of sulphates, from 240 to 600 parts of bicarbonates, 
and calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium in proportion. 
There is no proof that any stratum may not yield waters reaching 
the highest or the lowest limits in mineral content, though the waters 
of the alluvium are likely to show the greatest and those of the 
" Niagara " and the " Clinton " the least differences. Probably this 
is due to the fact that the alluvium is exposed to greater modification 
by seepage from other formations and by percolation of surface 
water. If is evident from Table 3 that waters apparently from the 
same stratum differ very widely in mineral content, and consequently 
the averages in Table 2 can be interpreted as being indicative only of 
the general similarity of the waters. 

The alluvium in some parts of the United States yields waters 
lower in mineral content than other local formations, and that might 
be thought to be a general condition, as the alluvial matter has been 
more thoroughly leached both during and after its deposition. Tlie 
alluvial deposits in southwestern Ohio, however, are essentially cal- 
careous, and they will furnish calcium and magnesium to the waters 
percolating through them just like other lime-bearing beds. In addi- 
tion, most of the water entering this alluvium has previously become 
impregnated with mineral matter from other underground deposits 
Avhich it has traversed. As a result the waters of the alluvium, 
though abundant, are not distinctly less mineralized than those of 
the other unconsolidated beds. 

WATERS or HIGH MINERAL CONTENT. 

Though the waters of the unconsolidated deposits and of the upper 
limestones are similar, waters below the " Clinton " are sharply dif- 
ferentiated. Keference to Table 2 shows that the Kichmond and 
Maysville formations yield supplies two to four times as high in 
mineral ingredients as those in the later formations and distinctly 
different in character. The percentages of calcium, magnesium, and 
chlorides are about the same, though the actual amounts are greater ; 
the percentages of alkalies and sulphates are much greater, and the 
proportion of bicarbonates is much less. Tests of the water in the 
Point Pleasant are available only at Cincinnati, and these are in- 
complete, so that definite statements can not be made regarding the 
character of the supply ; apparently it is similar to that of the Rich- 
mond and Maysville formations, possibly being higher in chlorides 
and in iron. No analyses of water from the Eden shale or from the 
" Birdseye " limestone are at hand, but the water in the former prob- 



212 



UNDEKGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



ably is as highly mineralized as that of the Richmond and Maysville, 
and the water in the " Birdseye " limestone is salty. The St. Peter 
sandstone yields in this region a very hard and very salt water, rang- 
ing from 1,000 to 100,000 parts per million of dissolved matter. Its 
characteristics as a strong brine can be seen in Table 2. 

RELATION TO OTHER UNDERGROUND WATERS. 

Table 4 presents figures by which the imdergroiind waters of south- 
western Ohio may be compared with those of north-central Indiana, 
where limestones are abundant. Both regions are well supplied with 
rain and are areas of hard limestone, and it is therefore interesting 
but not surprising that their characteristic waters are similar in min- 
eralization and in composition. 

Table 4. — Co7tiparison of the quality of ground loaters in southwestern Ohio 
and north-central Indiana. 



Mineral content in parts per million. 



Num- 
ber of 
analy- 



120 
169 
20 



Silica 
(SiOa). 



Iron 
(Fe). 



.5 
1.8 



Cal- 
cium 
(Ca). 



82 



Magne- 
sium 
(Mg). 



Sodium 
and 
potas- 
sium 

(Na+K). 



Car- 
bonate 
radicle 
(CO3). 



Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 



390 
306 
360 
341 



Sul- 
phate 
radicle 
(SO,). 



Chlo- 
rine 
(CI). 



Dis- 
solved 
solids. 



500 
467 
440 



Percentage composition of the anhydrous residues. 


E.... 




4 
4 
4 
4 








18 
21 
18 
20 


7 
7 
9 
7 


5 
4 
5 

7 


38 
35 
40 
40 




18 
18 
18 

17 


10 

11 

6 

5 




F 








G 








H. 


















A, E, Unconsolidated deposits of southwestern Ohio. 

B, F, Unconsohdated deposits of north-central Indiana (Water-Supply Paper U. 
254, 1910, pp. 260 and 261). 

C, G, "Niagara" limestone of southwestern Ohio. 

D, H, Fresh-water limestones of north-central Indiana, 



Geol. Survey No. 



SURFACE WATERS. 



Samples of water collected daily from Miami River at Dayton by 
B, F. Glass were united in sets of 10 and analyzed, with the results 
stated in Table 5. Daily readings of the gage maintained at Day- 
ton by the Weather Bureau were averaged in groups corresponding 
to the sampling periods, and these averages are given in the last 
column of the table. By comparing the gage heights with the 
amounts of suspended and dissolved solids an idea may be gained 
of the relation between the quantity of the water and its quality at 
this place. 



CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 



213 



Table 5. — Mineral analyses of water from Miami River at Dayton."- 
[Parts per million unless otherwise designated.] 



























, 


» 




« 








-tj 




Date 
(1906-7). 




>> 




8 


i 


o 




1 




Is 




1 • 

go 
3 




o 

is 


g 


> 
o . 


i. 










.12 ^i 


From— 


To— 


i 


T3 
C 


^ 




£ 


6 


1 




c30 
O 

s 




1^ 


a 
1 

8 


1 


tct 


Sept. 


16 


Sept. 


25 


32 


75 


2.34 


3.1 


16 


Tr. 


58 


28 


10 


9.0 


264 


38 


0.9 


5.0 


300 


0.7 


f^ept. 


26 


Oct. 


5 


82 


58 


1.81 


.9 


21 


Tr. 


65 


28 


9.0 


9.0 


28(1 


35 


2.8 


5.8 


318 


.8 


Oct. 


6 


Oct. 


15 


18 


32 


1.78 


.4 


17 


Tr. 


63 


26 


9.6 


.0 


297 


37 


3.1 


5.0 


309 


.6 


Oct. 


16 


Oct. 


25 


14 


26 


1.86 


.10 


18 


Tr. 


65 


27 


9.0 


.0 


301 


40 


2.9 


5.0 


317 


.8 


Oct. 


26 


Nov. 







14 


2.80 


.15 


20 


Tr. 


66 


28 


11 


8.2 


291 


• 41 


2.0 


5.5 


327 


1.0 


Nov. 


5 


Nov. 


14 


8 


20 


2.50 


Tr. 


20 


Tr. 


69 


29 


9.8 


Tr. 


317 


41 


2.0 


5.3 


335 


2.0 


Nov. 


15 


Nov. 


24 


75 


89 


1.19 


2.1 


14 


0.24 


64 


27 


9.8 


11 


250 


40 


7.0 


4.3 


304 


2.8 


Nov. 


25 


Dec. 




16 


21 


1.31 


.5 


19 


.05 


75 


28 


7.4 


3.6 


278 


60 


15 


4.0 


346 


2.4 


Dec. 


5 


Dec. 


14 


26 


34 


1.31 


.7 


26 


.07 


75 


28 


8.2 


10 


269 


62 


12 


4.7 


355 


2.5 


Dec. 


15 


Dec. 


24 


80i 54 


.67 


1.4 


15 


.23 


64 


23 


6.8 


.0 


239 


52 


13 


3.0 


296 


3.0 


Dec. 


25 


Jan. 






177 




3.2 


16 


.19 


68 


24 


7.1 


.0 


272 


52 


12 


3.5 


318 


4.2 


Jan. 


5 


Jan. 


14 


210 


lis 


.56 


3.0 


14 


.5 


50 


17 


6.5 


.0 


184 


36 


18 


3.6 


238 


6.5 


Jan. 


15 


Jan. 


24 


450 


223 


.50 


6.7 


15 


.7 


42 


14 


7.1 


.0 


161 


29 


11 


3.4 


212 


7.5 


Jan. 


25 


Feb. 




75 


49 


.65 


1.8 


16 


.6 


61 


23 


8.8 


12 


229 


44 


16 


4.1 


301 


3.3 


Feb. 


5 


Feb. 


14 


45 


42 


.93 


.5 


8.8 


.05 


60 


26 


8.0 


12 


215 


51 


10 


3.8 


282 


2.9 


Feb. 


15 


Feb. 


24 


11 


28 


2.55 


.4 


24 


.06 


58 


25 


6.9 


13 


212 


42 


11 


4.1 


298 


2.8 


Feb. 


25 


Mar. 


6 


260 


143 


.55 


4.2 


25 


.08 


67 


25 


7.4 


8.4 


246 


49 


9.0 


3.8 


320 


2.9 


Mar. 


27 


Apr. 


6 


37 


52 


1.41 


1.0 


15 


.12 


64 


24 


8.0 


12 




44 


10.0 


4.6 


299 


2.2 


Apr. 


7 


Apr. 


16 


25 


67 


2.68 


.3 


20 


.14 


50 


26 


8.4 


12 


200 


44 


15 


5.4 


282 


2.1 


Apr. 


17 


Apr. 


26 


25 


32 


1.28 


.6 


19 


.11 


58 


25 


3.5 


16 


217 


41 


15 


4.2 


298 


2.2 


Apr. 


27 


May 


6 


20 


36 


1.80 


.4 


15 


.16 


62 


24 


6.8 


13 


229 


39 


19 


3.8 


297 


2.5 


May 


7 


May 


16 


18 


35 


1.94 


.4 


23 


.11 


58 


23 


3.3 


14 


217 


40 


18 


4.3 


292 


2.0 


May 


17 


May 


28 


37 


79 


2.14 


1.3 


14 


.10 


52 


26 


3.0 


12 


218 


41 


15 


3.8 


275 


1.8 


May 


29 


June 


8 


240 


186 


.77 


4.4 


19 


.19 


53 


20 


12 


10 


197 


34 


15 


4.8 


264 


3.8 


Jirae 


9 


June 


18 


280 


252 


.90 


7.0 


18 


.7 


49 


18 


11 


9.6 


180 


27 


17 


3.8 


252 


5.2 


June 


19 


June 28 


75 


75 


1.00 


2.6 


17 


.12 


60 


22 


11 


2.4 


249 


33 


6.2 


4.8 


283 


2.5 


June 


29 


July 


8 


90 


168 


1.86 


1.6 


17 


.03 


42 


26 


8.2 


.0 


206 


37 


1.2 


4.2 


240 


1.9 


July 


9 


July 


19 




351 




7.9 


30 


.35 


51 


20 


14 


.0 






6.4 


2.4 


254 


4.0 


July 


20 


July 


29 




234 




3.2 


8.6 


.04 


26 


18 


12 


.0 






Tr. 


.6 


163 


3.4 


July 


30 


Aug. 


8 




12-5 




1.6 


9.2 


Tr. 


56 


24 


12 


.0 




37 


1.5 


.6 


258 


2.2 


Aug. 


9 


Aug. 


18 




77 




1.0 


18 


.03 


55 


25 


11 


.0 




39 


1.5 


1.4 


273 


1.4 


Aug. 


19 


Aug. 


28 


35 


48 


1.37 


.9 


9.8 


.05 


69 


29 


12 


.0 


323 


34 


.0 


5.4 


331 


1.1 


Aug. 


29 


Sept. 


7 


43 


46 


1.07 


.9 


15 


.04 


63 


24 


14 


.0 


287 


41 


2.5 


5.8 


304 


1.2 


Sept. 


8 


Sept. 


17 


140 

84 


130 
94 


.93 


2.6 


19 


.13 


59 


25 


13 


.0 


251 


36 


2.2 


4.8 


289 


1.7 


Me 


1.46 


2.0 


17 


.15 


59 


?4 


9 


5.8 


?44 


40 


8.6 


4.1 


289 




Per 


cen 


t of anhy- 


































d 


rous 


residue... 


.... 


.... 






5.9 


6.1 


20.5 


8.3 


3.1 


43.8 




13.9 


3.0 


1.4 













a Analyses Sept. 9 to Dec. 4, 1906, by R. B. Dole; Dec. 5, 1906, to Mar. 6, 1907, by R. B. Dole and M. G. 
Roberts; Mar. 27 to June 28, 1907, by Chase Palmer and M. G. Roberts; June 29 to Sept. 17, 1907, by R. 
B. Dole, Chase Palmer, and W. D. ColKns. Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 236, 1909, p. 72. 

b Fe203. 

During 1898 daily samples of water were taken from one of the 
intakes in Ohio River at Cincinnati, and the aA^erage, maximum, and 
minimum conditions of the water of Ohio River as shown by these 
analyses are given in Table 6.^ 

Table 6. — Mineral analyses of water from Ohio River at Cincinnati, 1898. 
[Parts per million.] 



Maximum. Minimum. Average. 



Suspended solids 

Dissolved solids 

Carbonate radicle (CO 3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO^) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Chlorine (CI) 



333 


24 


230 


233 


67 


120 


.0 


.0 




85 


24 


55 


46 


13 


24 


1.34 


.37 




44 


3.0 


10 



^ Fuller, 6. W., Report on the investigations into the purification of the Ohio River 
water for improved water supply of the city of Cincinnati, Ohio, 1899, pp. 493^94. 



214 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHWESTERN OHIO. 



The miscellaneous analyses of surface waters in southwestern Ohio 
presented in Table 7 are not absolutely comparable because of differ- 
ences in the analytical procedures employed by the analysts. The 
greatest difference probably is in total solids. It has been customary 
in the laboratory of the Geological Survey to dry residues at 180° C. 
for one hour. Horton dried his residues at slightly less than 100° C. 
and Dudley at 110° C. Therefore varying amounts of water, organic 
matter, and other volatile material are included in the figures for 
total solids. Most of the large differences, however, are probably 
due to actual differences in the waters at the time of collecting the 
samples. 

Table 7. — Miscellaneous analyses of surface waters in southwestern Ohio. 





Parts per million 


unless other 


wise 


designated.] 












Source. 


Analyst. 


Date. 


1 
S 

s 

3 

s 


a . 
If 

i 

II 

o 


o 

1 




a 

S 

a 

p 

'd 
o 
m 




-is 

so 

!h 

c3 



d 

CO 

1 

"3 

CQ 


g 

i 
1 




i 
1 

s 



i 

3 
® 

2 

CL, 


East Fork of Little 
Miami River: 

TyvnrhbnT'2' 


E. G.Horton 

do 

do 

C. B. Dudley 

Kennicott Water 
Softener Co. 

J. W. EUms 

do 

E. G.Horton 

Kennicott Water 
Softener Co. 

C. B. Dudley 

do 


April, 1905 

(a) 

(a) 
Sept. 12, 1901 
Apr. 21,1903 

Mar. 21,1902 
Aug. 8, 1904 

(a) 
Aug. 12,1902 

Oct. 24,1893 
Sept. 28,1896 
June 30,1898 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 
(«) 

July 23,1904 
Jan. 23,1904 

Sept. 29,1893 
Dec. 9,1904 
July 23,1904 
Nov. 16,1903 
Sept. 16,1902 
Feb. 21,1902 

Feb. 18,1901 
May 22,1902 

(a) 

(a^ 

(o) 

Feb. 11,1902 
Nov. 10,1903 
July 27,1904 
Dec. 9.1904 






55 


25 






48 


4.0 

14 

.9 
6 
12 


223 












105 
298 


258 


Uttle Miami River: 












244' 


Goes 












315 262 


Do 


5.5 


2.0 


87 

74 
56 


16 

22 
29 


8.0 
'5." 6 


286 

272 
300 
304 
286 


44 

45 
24 

"60 


316 




Trebeins 


?8'> 


Do 






3.6 
.9 
24 

7 
7 
14 
1.9 
2.3 

1.2 

.5 
2.8 
8 
8 

Tr. 
14 
10 
41 
31 
13 

7 
10 
.7 

1.2 

2.4 

6 
12 

3 

5 


"37i 


252 


Xenia 








Do 


2.4 


2.9 


75 


37 


.... 




Morrow 


260 
304 
307 
364 
679 

456 
431 
417 

329 


220 


Loveland 
















9S3 


Do 


do 
















?44 


Do 


E. G.Horton..... 
do 

do 












244 
205 

340 
332 
311 
314 
224 


'"si 

37 


















Mad River: 














Springfield 


do ....... 
















do 














East Dayton 

Do 


J. W. EUms 

do 






71 
61 


32 
20 


9 


30S 






?38 


Mill Creek: 


C. B. Dudley 

J. W. EUms 

do 






271 


Ivory dale 






75 
45 
89 
101 
94 

86 
81 


28 
23 
26 


18 
11 
96 


312 

220 
328 
442 
364 

284 
294 
268 
245 
262 
372 
262 
222 
262 


58 
35 
56 
16 
69 

115 

77 

■"67 
54 
45 
41 


900 






202 


Do 


do 








335 


Do... 


do 






31 2i 


368 


Do 


do 






34 

35 
33 


4 
3 




Miami River: 


. do 






'404 
484 
388 

.... 


377 


Do 


do 






346 


Do 


E. G. Horton 

do 








Piqua 














"^"fe::;;::::::;:: 


do 

J. W. EUms 

do 


















75 
64 
53 
64 


32:34 
2316 

23 4 
231 5 


298 


Do 






251 


Do 


do 






220 


Do 


do 






256 



a Average of 8 analyses of water coUected between April and November, 1900. 



CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 



215 



Table 7. — Miscellaneous analyses of surface waters in southwestern Ohio — Continued. 











, 






s 


® 










































h • 






3 


o 


















ri c5 


























•30 






w ■ 


TJ 


O 






^ 










VP, 






o . 


^4 


m 






G 










^+ 




^ 


'^: 


©^ 


.^ 






^ 


Source. 


Analyst. 


Date. 


.1 
m 

i 


.11 


i 


B 

1 

C3 


3 


|8 


1 

"c3 

ft 


1 

1 


CO 
o 

i 


i 

o 








CQ 


o 


O 


1^ 


CQ 


W 


OS 


o 


H 


t^ 


Miami River: 




. 


















Dayton 


E. G. Horton 

J. W. Ellms 

E. G. Horton 

do 


(a) 

(&) 
(a) 
(a) 












278 
292 
259 
230 


"64 


4 2 
11 
33 
3.1 


407 

"423 
626 




Do 






79 


30 


4 


3?3 


Middletown 








Hamilton 














Twin Creek: 
















Carlisle 


J. W. Ellms 


(*=) 






62 


25 


3 


272 


27 


2 


.... 


'M7 


Whitewater River: 








New Paris. 


C.B.Dudley 


Feb. 23,1893 


















334 


?48 


Pond: 






















College Comer 


J. W. Ellms 


(d) 






60 


33 


16 


236 


79 


30 




?94 











a Average of 8 analyses of water collected between April and November, 1900. 

& Average of 20 analyses of water collected at intake, North Dayton, at Second Street, Dayton and at 
Perry Street, between Feb. 28, 1901, and Mar. 7, 1906. 
c Average of 4 analyses of water collected between Feb. 21, 1902, and Dec. 9, 1904. 
d Average of 5 analyses of water collected from a pond between Dec. 8, 1900, and Dec. 9, 1904. 

Comparison of Table 6 with Tables 5 and T indicates that the 
water of Ohio River at Cincinnati is lower in mineral content than 
the other surface waters of this region. This is due to the fact that 
the greater portion of the Ohio comes from areas of soft water. 
The Allegheny at Kittanning, Pa., carries 87 parts per million of 
dissolved solids and the Monongahela at Elizabeth, Pa., 81 parts; 
and though Youghiogheny River at McKeesport, Pa., carries 197 
parts of dissolved solids it contributes only about one-eighth of the 
discharge of Ohio River at Pittsburgh, Pa., and therefore its water 
does not much increase the mineral content of the main stream. The 
tributaries from the State of Ohio are similar to Miami River in 
mineral content, but their effect is more than counterbalanced by 
the drainage from Kentucky and West Virginia, which is much lower 
in dissolved solids. 



RELATION BETWEEN UNDERGROUND AND SURFACE 

WATERS. 

The surface supplies are much lower in mineral content than the 
ground supplies, and are therefore better for industrial use. The 
relation between the quality of the water of Miami River at Dayton 
and those of the underground sources is shown in Table 8. The 
ground waters in general exceed the Miami water in their content of 
all constituents, but the character of the mineral matter is much the 
same in both. 



216 



UNDEKGKOUND WATEKS OF SOUTHWESTEKN OHIO. 



Table 8. — Comparison of the mineral content of surface atid 'underground 

tvaters. 



Mineral content in parts per million, 





Silica 
(Si02). 


Iron 

(fe). 


Cal- 
cium 

(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 

(Mg). 


Sodium 
and po- 
tassium 
(Na+K). 


Car- 
bonate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Sul- 
phate 
radicle 
(SO,). 


Nitrate 
radicle 

(NO3). 


Chlo- 
rine 
(CI). 


Dis- 
solved 
solids. 


A 

B 


17 

20 


0.15 
.8 


59 
90 


24 
35 


9.0 
30 


5.8 



244 
390 


40 
90 


8.6 


4.1 
50 


289 
500 


Percentage composition of anhydrous residues. 


C 


5.9 
4 


0.1 


20.5 


8.3 

7 


3.1 

5 


43.8 
38 




13.9 
18 


3.0 


1.4 

10 




D . 





18 













a Fe203. 

A, C, Water of Miami River at Dayton. 

B, D, Underground water; from gravel, till, "Niagara," and "Clinton." 

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE WATERS. 

The best source of large amounts of water for industrial purposes 
in this region is Ohio Eiver, whose waters are much lower in dis- 
solved solids than its tributaries from southwestern Ohio and only 
from one-fifth to one-third as high in dissolved solids as the ground 
waters of low mineral content. Practically all the surface waters are 
lower in mineral content than the ground waters and consequently 
are better for industrial use. In addition to dissolved matter, tl^e 
water of Ohio River averages 230 parts and that of Miami River 94 
parts per million of suspended solids, but it would be much less 
expensive to remove the suspended matter from these waters than to 
soften available ground waters that do not contain suspended matter. 
If the turbidity were removed by sedimentation or by filtration the 
surface waters could be classified as good to fair for boiler use and 
most of them could be used without further treatment. 

The waters from the alluvium, gravel, till, " Niagara " limestone, 
and " Clinton " limestone are similar in mineral content and in the 
character of their dissolved matter. Dissolved solids range from 300 
to 600 parts per million and average about 500 parts, chlorides from 
2 to 200 parts, sulphates from a trace to 300 parts, and bicarbonates 
from 240 to 600 j)arts. The waters are hard, but they can readil}^ be 
softened, and in their natural condition they range from fair to bad 
for boiler use ; they deposit considerable scale and some of them are 
corrosive, but they do not foam under ordinary conditions of boiler 
operation. 

The waters from the Richmond and Maysville formations and from 
the Point Pleasant are distinctly less desirable as industrial sup- 
plies, being much higher in incrustants, chlorides, and sulphates. 



CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 217 

Though some of the waters from the Richmond and Maysville are as 
low in incrustants as some of the waters from the later beds, the 
results of the feAv analyses available indicate that this is not their 
general condition. 

The St. Peter sandstone yields water so heavily mineralized as to 
be unfit for industrial use except for cooling, and even for that pur- 
pose the water would be corrosive. 

As practically all the surface waters in this region are likely to 
be polluted by sewage and most of them by factory wastes they should 
not be used for domestic supplies without careful purification. Fil- 
tration under competent supervision would probably make them safe 
for drinking and satisfactory for laundry use. Nothing in the av- 
erages of the analyses of fresh underground waters indicates that they 
are not suitable for drinking and for general domestic use, though 
those from the earlier formations are very hard. Consideration of 
the individual analyses, however, shows that some of the waters con- 
tain so much iron that they would stain fabrics washed in them. The 
pollution of streams in this region and the sources of waters in rela- 
tion to municipal use have been studied in much detail by the State 
board of health.^ 

1 Ann. Repts. Ohio State Board of Health, 1897 to date. 



INDEX. 



A. Page. 

Aberdeen , geology and water supplies at G5 

Acids, free, in water, objections to 185 

Adams County, description of 57 

springs in 60 

underground-water conditions in 61 

water-bearing formations of 57-60 

water supplies in 60-61 

A ddyson , geology and water supplies at 130 

Afton , geology and water supplies at 87 

Air Hill, geology and water supplies at 153 

Alexanders ville, geology and water supplies 

at 153 

All ens burg , geology and water supplies at . . . 137 
Alluvium, distribution and character of... 22,23-24 

water in 37, 40-41 

head of 39 

quality of 208, 210 

See also particular counties, water-bearing 
formations in. 

Amelia, geology and water supplies at 87 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

American Railway Engineering and Mainte- 
nance of Way Association, on 

classification of waters 183-184 

Amity, geology and water supplies at 153 

Analyses , authority for .• 172-173 

statement of 173 

Andersons Ferry, geology and water supplies 

at 130 

Arcanum, geology and water suppUes at . . . 51, 53, 99 

Arlington, geology and water supplies at 153 

Arlington Heights, geology at 115 

pubUc water supplies at 51 

Arnheim, geology and water supphes at 65 

Artesian conditions, map showing 30 

Asbury , geology and water supplies at 130 

Avondale, geology and water supplies at 130 

B. 

Bachman , geology and water supplies at 153 

water at, analysis of 204-205 

Bacteriologic quaUties of water, nature of 176 

Baldwin, geology and water supplies at 87 

Bantam, geology and water suppUes at 87 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Bardwell , geology and water supplies at 65 

Batavia, water supphes at 51, 85, 87 

river water at, analysis of 214 

Bay wood, geology and water supplies at 87 

Beatty , geology and water supphes at 82 

Beavertown, geology and water supphes at. . 153 
Bedding planes, feeding of water beds through . 36 

feeding of water beds through, figure 

showing 34 

Belfast, geology and water supplies at 87 

Bell, geology and water supplies at 137 



Page. 

Bellbrook, water at, analysis of 200-201 

Benton ville (Adams County), geology and 

water supplies at 61 

BentonviUe (Clinton County), geology and 

water supplies at 96 

Berrysville, geology and water supplies at . . . 137 

Bernard, geology and water supplies at 65 

Bethel, geology and water supplies at 87 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Bevis, geology and water supplies at 130 

Bicarbonates in water, objections to 187 

Biehn, geology and water supplies at 65 

Bibliography 16-17 

Birdseye limestone, distribution and charac- 
ter of 23,30-31,115 

outcrop of 35 

water in 39, 48, 115 

quality of 40 

Blackhawk, geology and water supplies at. . . 171 

Blairsville, geology and water supplies at 87 

Blanchester, geology and water supplies at . . . 51, 

53,92-93,96 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

BlowviUe, geology and water supplies at 87 

Blue Ash, geology and water supplies at 130 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

BluebaU, geology and water supplies at 171 

Blue Creek, water at, analysis of 198-199 

Boiler compounds, nature of 180-181 

Boilers, trouble in 178-180 

trouble in, remedies for 180-181 

water for 178-184 

classification of 181-184 

Bondes Ferry, geology and water supplies at. 65 

Bond Hill, public water supplies at 51, 130 

Boston, geology and water supplies at 87 

Branch Hill, geology and water supplies at. . . 87 

Brandt, geology and water supplies at 143 

Brecon, geology and water supplies at 130 

Bridgeport, geology and water supplies at. . . 153 

Bridges, geology and water supplies at 137 

Bridgetown, geology and water supplies at. . 130 

Brook ville, geology and water supplies at 52, 

54,148,153 

water at, analysis of 204-205 

Brown County , description of 61 

underground- water conditions in 65-66 

water-bearing formations in 62-64 

water supplies in 51, 53, 64-66 

Brown town, geology and water supplies at. . 65 

water at, analysis of 198, 199 

Buford. geology and water supplies ai 137 

Butler County, description of 66-67 

underground- water conditions in 74 

water-bearing formations in 67-70 

water supplies in 51, 53, 70-74 

Butlerville, geology and water supplies at 171 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

219 



220 



INDEX. 



C. Page. 

Calcium, objections to, in water. . . 177, 179, 186-187 
California, geology and water supplies at. . . 116, 130 

wells at, sections of 116 

Camargo , geology and water supplies at 171 

Cambrian dolomite, distribution and charac- 
ter of 31,115 

water in 39, 49 

Cambrian sandstone, distribution and char- 
acter of 115 

Camden, geology and water supplies at 158, 164 

water at, analyses of 206-207 

Campbellstown, geology and water supplies 

at 164 

Camp Denison , geology a ad water supplies at . 130 

water at, analysis of 202-203 

Camp Hagerman, geology and water supplies 

at 171 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Capps, S. R., work of 18 

Carbonates in water, objections to 187 

Carboniferous sandstone, distribution and 

character of 133 

Careytown, geology and water supplies at 137 

Carlisle (Brown County), geology and water 

supplies at -. . . 65 

Carlisle (Warren County), geology and water 

supplies at 171 

river water at, analysis of 215 

Carthage, geology and water supplies at 51 , 

53, 117, 130 

water at, analysis of 202-203 

Catawba, geology and water supplies at 82 

Cedar Point, geology and water supplies at. . . 130 
Cedar Springs, location and character of. . . 158-159 
Cedarville, geology and water supplies at. . 104, 109 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Cedron , geology and water supplies at 87 

Cement rock, occiurence and effects of 41-42 

view of 46 

Center Point, geology and water supplies at. . 65 
Center ville (Brown County), geology and 

water supplies at 65 

Centerville (Montgomery County), geology 

and water supplies at 153 

water at, analysis of 204-205 

Chambersburg, geology and water supplies at . 153 
Chappendocia Springs, location and character 

of 129 

Charleston, geology and water supplies at 87 

Chasetown, geology and water supplies at 65 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

Chautauqua Grove, geology and water sup- 
plies at 148 

Cherry Fork, geology and water suppUes at.. 61 
Cherry Grove, geology and water supplies at . . 130 

Cheviot, geology and water supphes at 130 

Chile, geology and water supplies at 87 

Chlorides, objections to, in water 177, 187, 188 

Cincinnati, climate at 21 

geology and water suppUes at 117-125, 130 

wells at 121-123,130 

records of 118-120 

water of, analyses of 125, 202-203 

Cincinnati anticline, character of 31 

Cities, pollution of ground water in 14 

Clapp, F. G., work of 18 



Page. 

Clare, geology and water suppUes at 96 

Clark County, description of 75 

imder ground- water conditions in 82 

water-bearing formations in 75-79 

figure showing 77 

water supplies in 51, 53, 79-82 

Clarksville, geology and water supplies at 93,96 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Clayton, geology and water suppUes at 153 

water at, analysis of 204-205 

Clermont County, description of 82 

underground- water conditions in 87-88 

water-bearing formations in 83-85 

water suppUes in 51, 53, 85-88 

Clermontville, geology and water supplies at. 87 

Cleves, geology and water suppUes at 130 

CUfton (Clark County), geology and water 

supplies at 82 

CUfton (Greene County), geology and water 

suppUes at 105, 109 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

CUmate, character of 21 

CUnton, geology and water supplies at 96 

Clinton County, description of 

tmderground- water conditions in 

water-bearing formations in 

water suppUes in 51, 53, 92-96 

recommendations concerning 92 

Clinton Umestone, distribution and charac- 
ter of 27,28-29 

outcrop of 34-35 

figure showing 34 

view of 45 

springfrom, view of 45 

water in 39, 40, 45 

quaUtyof 208-210,216 

value of 216 

See also particular counties, water-bearing 
formations in. 

Clover, geology and water suppUes at. , 87 

Cluff, geology and water suppUes at 130 

Cold Springs, geology and water suppUes at . 82 

Cold-water softening, method of 195-196 

Coke Otto, geology and water supplies at 70, 74 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

CoUege Corner, geology and water supplies at. 74 

river water at, analysis of 215 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

College HiU, geology and water suppUes 

at 125-126,130 

water at, analyses of 202-203 

Collinsville, geology and water supplies at. . . 74 
Color in water, cause of and objections to. . 175, 185 

Corrosion in boilers, cause of 179 

Corwin, geology and water supplies at 171 

Country rock, determination of 55 

Cozadale, geology and water supplies at 171 

Craven, geology and water supplies at 87 

Creed ville, geology and water supplies at 130 

water at, analysis of 202-203 

Crenothrix, eflfects of 175, 186 

Crescent ville, geology and water supplies at . . 130 
Crosstown, geology and water supplies at — 65 
Crown Point, geology and water supplies at. . 153 
Cuba, geology and water supplies at 93-94, 96 

water at, analysis of 200-201 



INDEX. 



221 



D. Page. 

Danville, geology and water supplies at 137 

Darke County, description of 96-97 

underground- water conditions in 99 

water-bearing formations in 97-98 

water supplies in 51, 53, 99 

Darrto\\Ti, geology and water supplies at — 71, 74 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

Dayton, climate at 21 

geology and water supplies at . 52, 54, 148-150, 153 

river water at, analysis of 215, 216 

well at, record of 149 

water of, analysis of 204-205 

Dean, geology and water supplies at 153 

Decatur, geology and water supplies at 65 

Delhi, geology and water supplies at 130 

Dent, geology and water supplies at 130 

Deserted Camp, geology and water supplies at 96 

Desoto, geology and water supplies at 65 

Dodds, geology and water supplies at 171 

Dodson, geology and water supplies at 153 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Dodson ville, geology and water supplies at. . 137 
Dole, R . B ., on chemical character of waters of 

southeastern Ohio 172-217 

work of 18, 172, 197 

Donnelsville, geology and water supplies at. . 82 

water, analysis of 198-199 

Drainage, description of 20 

Drexel, geology and water supplies at 153 

Drift, water in 37 

water in, head of 38-39 

See also Morainal drift; Till; Gravel; Gla- 
cial valley filling. 
Dunlop, geology and water supplies at 130 

E. 

Eagle City, geology and water supplies at 82 

water at, analyses of 198-199 

East Dayton, river water at, analyses of 215 

East Monroe, water at, analysis of 204-205 

Eastwood, geology and water suppUes at 65 

Eaton, geology and water suppUes at 52, 

54,159-161,164 

wells at and near, record of 159 

water of, analyses of 206-207 

Ebenezer, geology and water supplies at 153 

Eckmans ville, geology and water supplies at 61 
Eden shale, distribution and character of. 23,29-30 

outcrop of 35 

figure showing 34 

water in 46-47 

See also particular counties, water-bearing 
formations in. 
Edenton, geology and water supplies at 87 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Edwardsville, geology and water supplies at . . 171 

Eightmile, geology and water suppUes at 130 

Eldorado, geology and water supplies at 164 

Elenor, geology and water suppUes at 87 

Elmwood, geology and water suppUes at 51, 

126,130 

weU at, record of 126 

Elizabethtown, geology and water suppUes at . 130 

EUenton, geology and water suppUes at 153 

Ellsbury , geology and water suppUes at , . . . , 65 



Page. 
Elmwood, geology and water supplies at 130 

water at, analysis of 202-203 

Elston, geology and water suppUes at 87 

Emerald, geology and water suppUes at 61 

Englewood, geology and water suppUes at. . 153 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Enon, geology and water suppUes at 82 

Epworth Heights, geology and water suppUes 

at 87 

Euphemia, geology and water suppUes at 164 

Evans, J. R., work of 18, 197 

F. 

Fairfax, geology and water suppUes at 137 

Fairfield, geology and water suppUes at 109 

Fairhaven, geology and water supplies at 164 

Fairmount, geology and water supplies at . - . 153 
Fairview (Adams County), geology and water 

supplies at 61 

Fairview (Highland County), geology and 

water supplies at 137 

Fallsview, geology and water suppUes at 137 

Farmers, geology and water suppUes at 96 

FarmersviUe, geology and water suppUes at . 150, 153 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Farm weUs, pollution of 14 

Fayette ville, geology and water supplies at. . 65 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

Feed- water heating, method of 196-197 

Feesburg, geology and water supplies at 65 

Felicity, geology and water supplies at 86, 87 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Fembank, geology and water supplies at 130 

Ferristown, geology and water supplies at. . . 65 

Ferry, geology and water supplies at 109 

Fidelity, geology and water supplies at 143 

Field work, extent of 18 

Filtration, methods of 192-195 

necessity for 217 

Fincastle, geology and water supplies at 65 

Fivemile, geology and water supplies at 65 

Fletcher, water at, analyses of 204-205 

Flowing wells, conditions controlling 37-38 

distribution of 56 

occturence of 43 

Foaming, cause of 179 

Folsom, geology and water supplies at 137 

ForestvUle, geology and water supplies at. . . 130 

Forgy, geology and water supplies at 82 

Fort Ancient, geology and water supplies at. 171 
Fort McKinley , geology and water supplies at 153 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Foster, geology and water supplies at 171 

Fourmile House, geology and water supplies 

at 153 

Franklin, geology and water supplies at 52, 

54, 168, 171 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Fruit HUl, geology and water supplies at 130 

Fuller, M. L., work of 18, 197 

Fimston, geology and water supplies at 87 

G. 

Gath, geology and water supplies at 13 7 

Geology, description of 21-31 

relation of, to quality of water . , , 208-209 



222 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Georgetown, geology at 64 

public water supplies at 51, 53, 64, 65 

Germantown, geology and water supplies 

at 150,153 

Germs, disease, freedom of water from 176 

Gettersberg, geology and water supplies at . . 153 
Gettysburg, geology and water supplies at.. . 164 
Ginghamsburg, geology and water supplies 

at 143 

Glacial valley filling, distribution and charac- 
ter of 23-24 

source of 24 

waters ia 40-41 

Gladstone, geology and water supplies at 109 

Glass, B, F., analyses by 213 

Glendale, geology and water supplies at. . 51, 53, 130 

Glen Este, geology and water supplies at 87 

Glenrose, geology and water supplies at 87 

Goes, geology and water supplies at 105, 109 

river water at, analyses of 215 

Gordon, geology and water supplies at 99 

Goshen, geology and water supplies at 87 

Grape Grove, geology and water supplies at. . 109 

Gravel, water in, quality of 208, 210 

See also Terrace gravel; Glacial valley 
filling; Old gravels. 

Gratis, geology and water supplies at 164 

Grayson, geology and water supplies at 143 

Greenbush (Brown County), geology and wa- 
ter supplies at 65 

Greenbush (Preble County), geology and wa- 
ter supplies at 164 

water at and near, analyses of 206-207 

Greene County, description of 100 

underground-water conditions in 108-109 

water-bearing formations in 100-103 

water supplies in 51, 53, 104-109 

Groesbeck, geology and water supplies at 130 

Ground water, search for, loss in 15 

Guinea, geology and water supplies at 87 

Gurneyville, geology and water supplies at. . . 96 

H. 

Hamilton, geology at 71 

river water at, analysis of 215 

water supplies at 51, 53, 71-72, 74 

wells at, record of 72 

water of, analysis of 198-199 

Hamilton County, description of 109-110 

springs in 129 

underground-water conditions in 130-131 

water-bearing formations in 110-115 

water supplies in 51-53, 115-131 

Hamlet, geology and water supplies at 87 

Hammersville, geology and water supplies at . 65 
Happy Corners, geology and water supplies 

at 153 

Hardness, cause of 177 

local variation in meaning of 174-175 

Harrison, geology and water supplies at 51, 

53,126,130 

water at, analysis of 204r-205 

Harshasville, geology and water supplies at.. 61 

Harshman, geology and water supplies at 153 

Hartwell, geology and water supplies at 51, 130 

water at, analysis of 204-205 



Page. 
Harveysburg, geology and water supplies at. 171 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Hawkers, geology and water supplies at 109 

Hayes Store, geology and water supplies at. . . 153 
Hazel wood, geology and water supplies at. . . 130 
Helderberg limestone, distribution and char- 
acter of 133 

Hennessey, geology and water supplies at 82 

Hennings Hill, geology and water supplies at. 87 

Hestoria, geology and water supplies at 65 

Hiett, geology and water supplies at 65 

Higginsport, geology and water supplies at. . . 65 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

Highland, geology and water supplies at 137 

Highland County, description of 131-132 

under ground- wa ter conditions in 137 

water-bearing formations in 132-134 

water supplies in 52, 54, 135-137 

Hill, geology and water supplies at 87 

Hillsboro, geology and water supplies at 52, 

54,135-137 

water at, analyses of 204^205 

Hollo wtown, geology and v/ater supplies at. . 137 
Home City, geology and water supplies at. . . 130 
HopkinsviUe (Greene County), geology and 

water supplies at 109 

HopkinsviUe (Warren County), geology and 

water supplies at 171 

Hufleysville, geology and water supplies at. . 109 

Hulington, geology and water supplies at 87 

Hustead, geology and water supplies at 82 

Hyde Park, geology and water supplies at. . 51, 130 
Hydrogen sulphide, objections to, in water. . 177, 

179, 188 
I. 

Idlewild, public water supplies at 52 

Ulinoian till, distribution and character of... 22,26 

Industry, water for 15 

Indiana, ground waters in, comparison of, 

with Ohio waters 212 

Industrial uses, water for, objectionable quali- 
ties in 185-189 

requisites of 184 

Information, sources of 15-18 

Ingomar , geology and water supplies at 164 

Investigation, object of 14-15 

Ionic statement of analyses, adoption of 173 

Iron in water, objections to 176-177, 179, 186 

occurrence of, in Ohio 217 

Ithaca, geology and v/ater supplies at 99 

Ivory dale, geology and water supplies at 126-127, 130 

river water at, analyses of 215 

well at, record of 127 

water of, analyses of 204, 205 

J. 

Jamestown, geology and water supplies at. 105, 109 
water at, analyses of 200-201 

Joints, definition of 36 

feeding of water beds through 35-36 

figure showing 35 

K. 

Kennedy, geology and water supplies at 130 

Kennedy Heights, public water supplies at . . 52 



INDEX. 



223 



Page. 

and water supplies at 143 

Kingman, geology and water supplies at 96 

Kings Mills, geology and water supplies at. . 168- 

169, 171 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Kingsville, geology and water supplies at — 153 

Kinsey , geology and water supplies at 153 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Kirbysville, geology and water supplies at. . 65 
Kreitzer Corner, geology and water supplies 

at 153 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

L. 

Lagonda, geology and water supplies at 82 

Lam ber tine, geology and water supplies at. . 153 
Laura, geology and water supplies at 143 

water of, analysis of 204-205 

Laurel, geology and water supplies at 87 

Lawrenceville, geology and water supplies at. 82 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

Lebanon, geology and water supplies at 52, 

54,169,171 

well at, record of 169 

water of, analysis of 206-207 

Leeland, geology and water supplies at 171 

Leesburg, geology and water supplies at . 52, 135, 137 

wells at, record of 135 

water of, analysis of 204-205 

Lees Creek, geology and water supplies at — 96 

Lerado, geology and water supplies at 87 

Levanna, geology and water suppUes at 65 

Level , geology and water supplies at 171 

Leverett, Frank, aid of 18 

Lewisburg, geology and water supplies at. . 161, 164 

Liberty, geology and water supplies at 153 

Limestone City, geology and water supplies at 82 

Lime water, use of 180 

Lindale, geology and water supplies at 87 

Linden wold, geology and water supplies at . . . 74 

Literature, list of 16-17 

Lithium, existence of, in water 189-190 

Little Center, geology and water supplies at . . 96 
Little Miami River, geology on 24r-25 

water of, analyses of 214 

vaUey of, description of 19 

terraces on 20 

Little Miami River, East Fork, water of, 

analyses of 214 

Littleton, geology and water supplies at 137 

Little York, geology and water supplies at. . . 153 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Location of area 13-14 

map showing 13 

Lockland, geology and water suppUes at 52, 130 

Locust Corner, geology and water suppUes at . 87 
Locust Ridge, geology and water suppUes at . . 65 
Loess, distribution and character of 22, 25-26 

water in 42 

See also particular counties, water-bearing 
formations in. 
Loveland, geology and pubUc water suppUes 

at 51,53,86,87 

river water at, analyses of 215 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Ludlow, geology and water suppUes at 143 



Page. 

Ludlow, water at, analysis of 204-205 

Ludlow Grove, geology and water suppUes 

at 204-205 

Ludwick, geology and water supplies at 137 

Lumberton, geology and water supplies at. . . 96 
Lynchburg, geology and water supplies at. . . 52 

54, 135-137 

river water at, analysis of 214 

weU at, record of 136 

water of, analysis of 204-205 

Lytle, geology and water supplies at 171 

M. 

Mack, geology and water suppUes at 130 

McKay, geology and water supplies at 94, 96 

weU at, record of. 94 

Macon, geology and water suppUes at 65 

Maderia, geology and water supplies at 130 

MadisonviUe, geology and water suppUes at. . 52 

53,127,130 

water at, analysis of 204-205 

Mad River, water of, analyses of 214 

Magnesium, objections to, in water . 177, 179, 186-187 

Maineville, geology and water suppUes at 171 

Manchester, geology and water suppUes at. . . 61 

water of, analysis of 198-199 

Manila, geology and water suppUes at 87 

Maple, geology and water supplies at 65 

Maps of southwestern Ohio 22, 24, 26, 30 

Maps, index, of area 13 

use of 55-57 

Marathon, geology and water suppUes at 86, 87 

Marshall, water of, analysis of 204-205 

Martinsville, geology and water suppUes at. . 94, 96 
Mason, geology and water supplies at. . 169-170, 171 

well at, record of 169 

water of, analysis of 206-207 

May, geology and water supplies at 87 

Maysville formation, distribution and char- 
acter of 23, 29 

outcrop of 35 

figure showing 34 

view of 46 

solution channels in, plate showing 36 

water in 45-46 

quaUty of 208 

value of 216-217 

See also particular counties, water-bearing 
formations in. 

Mechanical filtration, methods of 194-195 

Medicinal use, water for 189-190 

Medicinal waters, nature of. 189 

Melvin, geology and water supplies at 96 

Merrittstown , geology and water supp Ues at . 171 

Merwin, geology and water suppUes at . . 87 

Miami , geology and water supplies at 1 30 

Miami County, description of 138 

underground- water conditions in 143 

water-bearing foimations in 138-141 

water suppUes in 52, 54, 141-143 

Miami River, geology on 24-25 

water of, analyses of 214-215 

quaUty of 213 

value of 216 

valley of. description of 19 

terraces on , . 20 



224 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Miamivillc (Clermont County), geology and 

water supplies at 87 

Miamiville (Hamilton County), geology and 

water supplies at 130 

Miamisbui-g, geology and water supplies at. 52, 

54,151,153 

well at, record of 151 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Middleboro. geology and water supplies at. . 171 
Middletown, public water supplies at 51, 53 

river water at, analysis of 215 

Midland, geology and water supplies at 96 

water of, analysis of 200-201 

Midway, geology and water supplies at 82 

Milford, geology and public water supplies 

at 51,53,86,87 

water at, analysis of. 200-201 

Mill Creek, geology on 24-25 

water of 20 

analyses of 214 

Milltown , geology and water supplies at 65 

Millville, geology and water supplies at 74 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

Minerals in water, nature of 173-175 

Mineral waters, effect of, on disease 189-190 

nature of 189 

Modest , geology and water supplies at 87 

Monfort, geology and water supplies at 130 

Monroe, water at, analysis of 198-199 

Monterey, geology and water supplies at 87 

Montgomery, geology and water supplies at. 130 
Montgomery County, description of 143-144 

underground- water conditions in 153-154 

water-bearing formations in 144-148 

water supplies in 52, 54, 148-154 

Moores Fork, geology and water supplies at. 87 
Morainal drift, distribution and character of. 26 

water in 42 

See also particular counties, water-bearing 
formations in. 

Moraines, description of 20 

Morning Sun, geology and water supplies at. 164 
Morrisville, geology and water supplies at. . . 96 
Morrow, geology and water supplies at 170, 171 

river water at, analysis of 215 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Moscow, geology and water supplies at 87 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Mount Airy, geology and water supplies at. . . 130 
Mount Carmel, geology and water supplies at. 88 
Mount Healthy, geology and water supplies 

at 130 

Mount Holly (Warren County), geology and 

water supplies at 171 

Mount Holly (Clermont County), geology and 

water supplies at 88 

Mount Olive, geology and water supplies at. . 88 
Mount Orab, geology and water supplies at . . 65 
Mount Pisgah, geology and water supplies at . 88 
Mount Repose, geology and water supplies at. 88 
Mount St. Joseph, geology and water supplies 130 

at 130 

Mount Summit, geology and water supplies at. 130 
Mount Washington, geology and water sup- 
plies at 27, 130 

water at, analyses of 204-205 



Mo wrysto wn, geology and water supplies at . . 137 

Mulberry, geology and water supplies at 88 

Mummaville, geology and water supplies at . . 153 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Murdock, geology and water supplies at. . . 170, 171 

N. 

National Military Home, geology and water 

supplies at 52, 54, 150, 153 

Needful, geology and water supplies at 137 

Neel, geology and water supplies at 65 

Neff Grounds, spring at, views of 108 

Neville, geology and water supplies at 88 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Nevin, geology and water supplies at 137 

New Antioch, geology and water supplies at. . 96 
New Burlington, geology and water supplies 

at 94-95, 96 

water at, analyses of 200-201 

New Carlisle, geology and water supplies at. . 79, 82 

New Germany, water at, analyses of 206-207 

New Harmony, geology and water supplies at. 65 
New Haven, geology and water supplies at. . 130 
New Hope (Brown County), geology and 

water supplies at 65 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

New Hope (Preble County), geology and 

water supplies at 164 

New Jasper, geology and water suppUes at. . 109 
New Lebanon, geology and water supplies at. 153 
New Lexington (Highland County), geology 

and water supplies at 137 

New Lexington (Preble County), geology and 

water supplies at ,164 

New London, geology and water supplies at. 74 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

New Madison, geology and water supplies at. 99 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Newmarket, geology and water supplies at. 139 

water at, analysis of 204-205 

New Palestine, geology and water supplies at. 88 
New Paris, geology and water supplies at — 52, 54, 

161-162,164 

river water at, analysis of 215 

water at, analyses of 206-207 

New Petersburg, water at, analysis of 204-205 

New Richmond, geology and water sup- 
plies at 51, 53, 86, 88 

water at, analyses of 200-201 

Newtonsville, geology and water supplies at. 88 

water of, analysis of 200-201 

Newtown, geology and water supplies at 130 

New Vienna, geology and water supplies at . 51, 53, 96 

Niagara limestone, definition of 22, 28 

distribution and character of 22, 28 

outcrop of 34 

figure showing 34 

partings in^ plate showing 45 

solution channels in, plate showing 36,44 

spring from, view of 108 

water in 39-40, 44-45 

quality of 208-211, 216 

valueof 216 

See also particular counties, water-bearing 
formations in. 
Nice, geology and water supplies at 88 



INDEX. 



225 



Page. 

Nichols, geology and water supplies at 88 

Nickles, J. M., aid of 18 

Ninemile, geology and water supplies at 88 

Nineveh, geology and water supplies at 88 

Northampton, geology and water supplies at. 79, 82 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

North Bend, geology and water supplies at. . 130 

Norwood, geology and water supplies at 52, 53, 

126-127, 130 

wells at, records of 128 

water of, analysis of 204-205 

O. 

Oakland, geology and water supplies at 96 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Oakley, geology and water supplies at 131 

water at, analysis of 204-205 

Oakridge, water at, analysis of 206-207 

Oakwood, water supplies at 52, 54, 151 

Obaimon, geology and water supplies at 88 

Odor in water, cause of 175 

Ogden, geology and water supplies at 96 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Ohio, groundwaters in, comparison of, with 

Indiana waters 212 

Ohio River, description of 20 

geology on 24-25, 27 

pollution of 20 

water of, quality of 213 

value of 216 

valley of, description of 19-20 

terraces on 20 

Ohio shale, distribution and character of 133 

Oklahoma, geology and water supplies at 164 

Old gravels, distribution and character of 22, 27 

water in 43-44 

Oldtown, geology and water supplies at 109 

Olive Branch, geology and water supplies at. . 88 
Ordovician dolomite, distribution and charac- 
ter of 31 

water in 39, 49 

Oregonia, geology and water supplies at 171 

Organic matter in water, objections to 176, 188 

Organisms, growth of, objectionableness of. . 175 

Osborn, geology and water supplies at 51, 

53, 105-106, 109 

well at, record of 105 

Osceola, geology and water supplies at 171 

Outwash plains, distribution and character 

of 156 

Oxford, geology and water supplies at. 51,53, 73, 74 

wells at, record of 73 

water of, analysis of 198, 199 

Owensville, geology and water supplies at.. 88 



P. 



Paintersville, geology and water supplies at. 106. 109 

Pansy, geology and water supplies at 96 

Parker, H. N., work of 197 

Parts per milUon, analytical results stated in. . 173 

Pekin, geology and water supplies at 171 

Perintown, geology and water supplies at. ... 88 

Pigeye, geology and water supplies at 143 

Phillip burg, geology and water supplies at. . . 154 
water at, analysis of 206-207 

49130°— wsp 259—12 15 



Page. 

Phoneton, geology and water supplies at 143 

Pinhook, geology and water supplies at 88 

Piqua, river water at, analysis of 215 

Pitchin, geology and water supplies at 82 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

Pittsburgh, water at, analysis of 200, 201 

PlainvUle, geology and water supplies at 131 

Plattsburg, geology and water supplies at 82 

Pleasant Hill, geology and water supplies at. . 88 
Pleasant Plain, geology and water supplies at. 171 
Pleasant Ridge, geology and water supplies 

at 52,131 

Pleasant Run, geology and water supplies at. 131 
Point Isabel, geology and water supplies at. . 88 
Point Pleasant, geology and water supplies 

at 88 

Point Pleasant formation, distribution and 

character of 23,30,85, 115 

outcrop of 35 

figure showing 34: 

water in 47-48, 115 

quality of 208 

value of 216-217 

Portsmouth, climate at 21 

Port WUliam, geology and water supplies at. 96 
Potsdam, geology and water supplies at — 143 

water at, analysis of 204-205 

Prall, geology and water supplies at 65 

Preble County , description of 154 

springs in 160 

underground-water conditions in 164 

water-bearing formations in 155-158 

water supplies in 52, 54, 158-164 

Preston, geology and water supplies at 131 

Price Hill, geology and water supplies at 131 

Pricetown, geology and water supplies at — 137 

water at, analysis of 204-205 

Public water supplies , list of 49-54 

Pulse, geology and water supplies at 137 

Pyrmont , geology and water supplies at 154 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Q. 
Quaternary deposits, map showing 24 

R. 

Railroads, water for 15 

Rainfall, statistics of 21 

Reading, geology and water supplies at. . 52, 53, 131 

river water at, analysis of. 215 

Red Oak, geology and water supplies at 65 

Red Lion, geology and water supplies at 171 

Reesville, geology and water supplies at 9& 

Reily , geology and water supplies at 74 

Rehef , description of. 18-20 

Remington, geology and water suppUes at. . 131 

Rex, geology and water supplies at 14a 

water at and near, analyses of 204-205 

Richmond formation, distribution and char- 
acter of 23-29 

outcrop of 35 

figure showing 34 

view of 46. 

Avater in 45-4& 

quality of 208 

value of 216-217 

See also particular counties, water-bearing 
formations in. 



226 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Ridgeville, geology and water supplies at 171 

Ripley, geology and water supplies at. 51, 53, 64, 65 
Rivers, movement of water to 33-34 

movement of water to, figm-e showing. . 34 
Riverside, geology and water supplies at 131 

water at, analysis of 204-205 

Roachester, geology and water supplies at . . . 171 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Roberts, M. G., work of 18, 172, 197 

Rock formations, distribution and character 

of 28-31 

water in 36, 44-49 

flow in 38 

figures showing 38 

head in 37-38 

See also particular counties, water-bearing 
formations of. 
Rocky Ford, geology and water supplies at. . 88 

Ross, geology and water supplies at 74 

Rossburg, geology and water supplies at 171 

Rossmoyne, geology and water supplies at. . . 131 

water at, analysis of 204-205 

Roxanna, geology and water supplies at 109 

Rural, geology and water supplies at 88 

Russell, geology and water supplies at 137 

Russellville, geology and water supplies at. . . 65 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

S. 

Sabina, geology and water supplies at 96 

St. Bernard, geology and water supplies at. . 52, 

53, 128-129, 131 

water at, analyses of 204-205 

St. Martins, geology and water supplies at. . . 66 
St. Peter sandstone, distribution and charac- 
ter of 23,31,115 

outcrop of 35 

water in 36, 48-49, 115 

depth to 56 

quality of 40, 208, 217 

value of 217 

St.Richmond, geology and water supplies at. 154 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Salem, geology and water supplies at 88 

Saltair, geology and water supplies at 88 

Samantha, geology and water supplies at 13 

Sand filtration, method of 192-194 

Sardinia, geology and water supplies at 64, 65 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

Sater, geology and water supplies at 131 

Savona, geology and water supplies at 99 

Scale, formation of 178 

nature of 178 

Seaman, geology and water supplies at 61 

Sedamsville, geology and water supplies at . . 131 

Sekitan, geology and water supplies at 131 

Sehna, geology and water supplies at 82 

Sevenmile, geology and water supplies at 73, 74 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

Shandon, geology and water supplies at 74 

Sharon ville, geology and water supplies at. . . 131 

Silverton, geology and water supplies at 131 

Simpkinson, geology and water supplies at . . 88 
Sixmile, geology and water supplies at 154 

water at, analysis of 206-207 



Page. 

Sixteenmile Stand, geology and water sup- 
plies at 131 

Skiffeville, geology and water supplies at 66 

Sligo, geology and water supplies at 96 

Snyder, geology and water supplies at 131 

Snyderville, geology and water supplies at. . . 82 

Socialville, geology and water supplies at 171 

Soda ash, use of 180, 196 

Softening of water, methods of 195-197 

Somerville, geology and water supplies at 74 

South Charleston, geology and water supplies 

at 82 

river water at, analysis of 215 

South Excello, public water supplies at 51, 53 

South Lebanon, geology and water supplies at 171 
South Milford, geology and water supplies at. 88 

Spanker, geology and water supplies at 154 

Spann, geology and water supplies at 88 

Springboro, geology and water supplies at. . 170, 171 

Springdale, geology and water supplies at 131 

Springfield, geology at 79-82 

public water supplies at 51, 53, 79-82 

infiltration gallery of, plan of, chart 

showing 80 

section of, figure showing 81 

river water at, analyses of 215 

wells at, record of 79, 81 

water of, analyses of 198-199 

Spring Grove Park, geology and water sup- 
plies at 82 

Spring Valley, geology and water supplies at 106, 109 

Stabler, H., on classification of waters 181-183 

Steaming, water for 15 

Stephens, geology and water supplies at 61 

Stickaway, geology and water supplies at 66 

Stone Lick, geology and water supplies at. . . 88 

Strasburg, geology and water supplies at 137 

Stratigraphy, description of 21-31 

section showing 34 

sequence of 22-23 

Stringtown, geology and water supplies at. . . 66 

Structure, description of 31 

Sugartree Ridge, geology and water supplies 

at 137 

Sugar Valley, geology and water supplies at. . 164 

Sulphates in water, objections to 187 

Sulphur Grove, geology and water supplies at 154 
Summerside, geology and water supplies at. . 88 

Simshine, geology and water supplies at 66 

Smface deposits, determination of 55 

distribution of, map showing 26 

thickness of 55-56 

See also particular counties, water-bearing 
formations of. 

Surface waters, quality of 212-215 

relation of, to underground waters 215-216 

value of 216-217 

Surryville, geology and water supplies at ... . 66 

Suspended matter, objections to 185 

S wanktown , geology and water supplies at . . 154 

Sweetwine, geology and water supplies at 131 

Sydney, river water at, analyses of 215 

Symmes, geology and water supplies at 131 

Symmes Comers, geology and water supplies 

at 74 

water at, analysis of 198-199 



INDEX. 



227 



T. Page. 

Tadmon, geology and water supplies at... . 141-142 
Tallewanda Springs , location and character oi 74 
Taylorsburg, geology and water supplies at. . 154 
Taylors Creek, geology and water supplies at. 131 
Taylorsville (Brown County), geology and 

water supplies at 66 

Taylorsville (Highland Cotmty), geology and 

water supplies at 137 

Terrace gravels, cemented layers in, occur- 
rence and effects of 41-42 

cemented layers in, view of 46 

distribution and character of 22, 

24-25, 62, 67, 83, 112-113, 145 

section of 112 

source of 25 

water in 41-42 

figure showing 41 

Terrace Park, geology and water supplies at. . 131 

Till, distribution and character of 26-27 

water in 43 

quality of 208, 210 

See also particular counties, water-bearing 
formations in. 
Tippecanoe, geology and water supplies at. . . 52, 

54, 142, 143 

water at and near, analysis of 204-205 

Tobasco , geology and water supplies at 88 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Topography, description of 18-20 

Tranquility, geology and water supplies at . . 61 

Transit, geology and water supplies at 131 

Trautman, geology and water supplies at — 131 

Trebeins, geology and water supplies at 109 

river water at, analyses of 215 

Trenton, water at, analysis of 198-199 

Trotwood, geology and water supplies at 52, 

54, 152, 154 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Troy, river water at, analyses of 215 

Twentymile Stand, geology and water sup- 
plies at 171 

Twin Creek, water of, analysis of 215 

Typhoid fever, polluted water, cause of 14 

U. 

Ulrich, E. O., aid of 18 

Underground water , accessions to , at outcrop . 34-35 
accessions to , at outcrop , figure showing. . 34 

through joints 35-36 

figure showing 35 

analyses of 197-207 

available supply of 39-40, 49 

best source of 55 

comparison of, with Indiana waters 212 

depth to 55 

distribution of, map showing 30 

occurrence of 36-37 

quality of, relation of, to geology 20S-209 

relation of, to quality of surface wa- 
ters 215-216 

relation of, to surface 32-33 

source of 33-36 

value of 216-217 

Union (Montgomery County), geology and 

watCF supplies at 152, 154 

well at, record of 152 

water of, analysis of 206-207 



Page. 
Union (Warren County), geology and water 

supplies at 171 

Union Plains, geology and water suppUes at. . 66 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

Uplands, description of 19 

Urbana, river water at, analysis of 21a 

Utica shale, distribution and character 

of 23,2^-30, 85, ]1> 

water in 46-4' 

Utopia, geology and water supplies at 9i 

V. 

Valley Junction, water at, analysis of 204^' '05 

Valleys, description of V -'i") 

Valleys, movement of groimd water in 33-3 . , t ^ 

movement of ground water in, figure 

showing ;• 4 

Valleys, abandoned, description of W 

Vandaha, geology and water supplies at Iv4 

Vandervorts Comer, geology and water sup- 
plies at 95 

Venice, geology and water supplies dt 74 

Vera Cruz, geology and water supplies at 66 

Verona, geology and water supplies at 154 

water at, analysis of 206-207 

Vienna Crossroads, geology and water sup- 
plies at 82 

Villa, geology and water supplies at 82 

Vineyard Hill, water at, analysis of 198-199 

Vorhees, geology and water supplies at 154 

W. 

Wa^lsburg, geology and water supplies at 66 

Warren County, description of 164- 165 

public water supphes in 52, 54, 168-171 

imder ground- water conditions in 171 

water-bearing formations in 165-168 

Water, chemical qualities of 1 76 

impurities in, nature oi 174 

judgment of, from analyses 174 

minerals in 173-175 

pollution of 176, 217 

protection of. . ., 176 

pviriflcation of 190-197 

objects and methods of 190-192 

Water-bearing formations, distribution of, 

map showing 30 

Waters, mineral. See Mineral waters. 

Waters, surface. See Surface waters. 

Waters,underground. See Underground water. 

Water supplies, investigation of 14-15 

statistics of 49-54 

Waynesville, geology and water supplies at. . .52, 

54,170,171 
water at, analysis of 206-207 

Wellman , geology and water supplies at 171 

Wells, movement of water to 33-36 

movement of water to , figures showing. . . 34, 35 

protection of, necessity for 1 76 

view of 46 

water of, analyses of 197-207 

See also Flowing wells; particular coun- 
ties, underground- water condi- 
tions in. 

Wengerlawn , geology and water supplies at. . . 154 
water at, analysis of 206-207 



228 



INDEX. 



.^ 



Page. 
West Alexandria, geology and water supplies 

at 52,54,162-163,164 

well at, record of 162 

water of, analysis of 206-207 

Westboro . geology and water supplies at 96 

West Carrollton, geology and water supplies 

• at 52,54,152,154 

water at, analysis of. 206-207 

West Elkton, geology and water supplies at. . 163 

water at, analyses of ...^ 206-207 

West Florence, geology and water supplies at. 164 
West Manchester, geology and water supplies 

at 52, 54, 163-164 

West Milton, geology and water supplies at. . 52, 

54, 142-143 

water of, analysis of 204-205 

West Sonora, geology and water supplies at. . 164 
West Union, geology and water supplies at. . . 60-61 

water at, analysis of 198-199 

Westwood, geology and water supplies at 131 

West Woodville, geology and water supplies 

at 88 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Wheat , geology and water supplies at 61 

Whiteoak, geology and water supplies at 66 

Whiteoak Creek, water of 20 

Whitewater , geology and water supplies at . . . 131 

Whitewater River, water of, analysis of 215 

Wiggonsville, geology and water supplies at . . 88 
Wilberforce, geology and water supplies at — 51, 

53, 106, 109 

Willettville , geology and water supplies at 137 

WiUiamsburg, geology and water supplies at. 88 

water at, analysis of 200-201 

Willowville, geology and water supplies at 88 



Page. 

Wilmington , geology and water supplies at . 51 , 53, 95 

well at, record of 95 

water of, analysis of 200-201 

Winchester (Adams County), geology, and 

water supplies at 61 

water at, analysis of 198, 199 

Winchester (Preble County), geology and 

water supplies at 164 

Winkle, geology and water supplies at 137 

Wisconsin till, distribution and character of. 22,26 
Withamsville, geology and water supplies at. 88 
Wood bourn , geology and water supplies at. . . 154 

Woodington, water at, analysis of 200-201 

Woodlawn, geology and water supplies at 131 

Wrightsville, geology and water supplies at. . 61 

Wyoming, geology and water supplies at 52, 

53,128,131 
water at, analysis of 204-205 



Xenia, geology and water supplies at 51, 

53,106-107,109 

river water at, analyses of 215 

water at, analyses of 200-201 

Y. 

Yellow Springs, geology at 107-108, 109 

location and character of 107-108 

tufa at, analysis of 108 

view of 108 

views of 108 

water of, analyses of 200-201 

Z. 
Zimmerman , geology and water supplies at . . . 109 
Zoar, geology and water suppUes at 171 



O 



IE My '13 



